Unit 03
"Good" People, Bad Decisions
Why do generally good, honest people sometimes do bad, dishonest things?
Some would argue that every act of true evil started with small indiscretions, so what does the science tell us about why normal, "good" people lie, cheat, steal, and harm? Can causing harm ever be considered an act of good? Are there any evidence-based ways to reduce unethical behavior?
To answer these questions we have to explore how the same psychological processes that allow virtually everyone to rationalize small acts of dishonesty can explain grandiose acts of evil. The more aware we all are of our competing motivations and biased reasoning, the better chance we have of keeping ourselves (and others) honest. The more we understand the theoretical causes of evil decisions the better able we are to reduce them.
03-A: Minor Indiscretions
How did Ariely design a study to measure cheating in a controlled laboratory setting? How does he know if people, on average, cheated?
What did he conclude in general about the average person?
Integrating your knowledge of experimental design, how does random assignment allow us to rule out the possibility that one group of participants was simply better at the matrix puzzle?
Under what conditions are people more likely to lie, cheat, and steal? Be clear about the effect of:
Codes of conduct (e.g., honor pledges, religious principles)
Psychologically “distant” gains (e.g., tokens)
Probability of getting caught lying
Witnessing another person behaving dishonestly (peer vs. outsider)
The amount to be gained by lying
How do these conditions relate to Ariely’s theory of two competing motivations?
Why might it be easier to rationalize harm when people other than yourself benefit?
Under what circumstances might these conditions relate to real-world situations where people make evil decisions?
Critical Thinking Question: Before you continue, think about the most recent time you told a lie. What was the lie? Why did you tell it? Does telling that one lie make you a dishonest, dishonorable person, or is there a good reason why good people occasionally do dishonest things?
WATCH: Dan Ariely - Our Buggy Moral Code (TED, 2012)
As you watch, pay particular attention to the way that he designed the matrix studies to measure trends in dishonesty and the specific variables that tend to increase or decrease dishonesty.
It turns out that one of Ariely's studies looking at the placement of honesty agreements and insurance claims was based on fraudulent data, though it's still not clear who is responsible for that. Subsequent attempts to replicate the study failed, so it is unclear what if any effect placement has on honesty.
Come Prepared to Discuss...
Can you think of any examples in which someone might do something they know is cruel, but they justify it to themselves believing that it was ok because it benefited others?
03-B: Status & Entitlement
What is the research evidence that people with an obvious status advantage tend to...
Exhibit a self-serving bias?
Act in more anti-social ways?
Lie, cheat, and steal more?
Steal candy from children?
How might the psychological effects of status lead to callous greed and greater social inequality?
What were some of the evidence-based interventions that made advantaged people behave fairly?
WATCH: Does money make you mean? (Piff, 2013)
You have already learned about the self-serving bias and how it can influence perceptions of ourselves. So what happens when you have to make attributions for your own success and good fortune? Watch how, across a series of studies, the instinct to take credit for status can lead to a change in how we behave.
03-C: Counterbalancing & Carryover Effects
What is the difference between a within-subjects and between-subjects experiment?
What are carryover effects and when are they a potential problem for researchers? Be prepared to identify three specific carryover effects and give examples of how each would influence the second measure of a DV.
How can a researcher prevent carryover effects from biasing the overall results of a within-subjects experiment? Be clear about how and why random assignment is involved.
Up to this point, we have mostly focused on "between-subjects" experiments - where the sample is divided into two groups, each group experiences a different value of the IV, and the researcher compares the DV between the groups. However, there are also "within-subjects" experiments in which each participant experiences the various levels of the IV.
For instance, let's imagine that you wanted to know if wearing a special pair of running shoes caused people to run faster. One option would be to do this as a between-subjects experiment and randomly assign half to wear the new shoes and the other half to wear some control shoe. The disadvantage here is that the differences in running time might be very small, so we might commit a type-II error and fail to pick up the small but meaningful difference.
If we did this as a within-subjects experiment, we'd have all participants run twice - once with the new shoes and once with the control ones. This way, even if there were small improvements, we're more likely to be able to measure them.
Of course, if we do this as a within-subjects design, we have one problem... what if people run faster the second time no matter what shoes they're wearing because they are warmed up? What if they run slower because they are tired? Luckily, we address these issues by counterbalancing the order.
03-D: Perpetrators vs. Victims
How did Baumeister, Stillwell, & Wotman (1990) demonstrate that both victims and perpetrators have biased views of an incident? Be prepared to summarize their methodology and results and explain how they prevented carryover effects from biasing the overall results of the study.
How did Stillweli & Baumeister's (1997) demonstrate that these biases can affect our memories of an incident even when we weren't personally involved? What was the IV? In what specific ways were the accounts biased for each role?
LOCATE: Baumeister, Stillwell, & Wotman's (1990) study entitled "Victim and perpetrator accounts of interpersonal conflict: Autobiographical narratives about anger."
READ: The following sections of the paper:
Abstract
Autobiographical Narratives
Present Research Approach (stop at Derivation of Hypotheses)
Method
Discussion (stop at Future Research)
STUDENTS - The full paper is in the file section of our Canvas course page
PUBLIC - It appears you can have the full paper emailed to you on Baumeister's research page.
READ: The abstract of Stillweli & Baumeister's (1997) study for a quick summary of how people's accounts of a story they only imagined being in were nonetheless biased. You do not need to access the full article.
03-E: Implicit Bias
How are implicit attitudes different from explicit ones?
Why are implicit attitudes challenging to measure?
How does the implicit association Test (IAT) attempt to measure implicit attitudes?
How do we define and differentiate stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination?
How do these three things map onto the ABCs of psychology?
How can each be both implicit and explicit?
Before we learn more about the concept, I would like you to complete a short online activity designed to measure the subconscious biases that we might have.
STUDENTS: Be sure you have the worksheet quiz open in another tab, you'll be asked a few questions about the results screen. You may also want to take a screenshot of the results screen for your later reference.
GET READY: This is a reaction time test and will take about 10 minutes to complete. It is important that you do this free of distractions and that you try to be as fast and as accurate as possible.
STEP 1: Visit Project Implicit and read the preliminary information about the Implicit Association Test (IAT).
STEP 2: Click “I wish to proceed” and select a test for something that you do not think you have any real bias towards. Options may include:
Arab-Muslim
Disability
Gender-Science
Native
Race
Sexuality
Skin-tone
Weight
STEP 3: Take the test, and try to be as fast and accurate as you possibly can!
WATCH: Prejudice & Discrimination: Crash Course Psychology #39
What is the difference between implicit and explicit bias? How do these biases lead to prejudices and,in some cases, discrimination?
Come Prepared to Discuss...
Do you think it is possible to reduce implicit prejudice? Why or why not?
Closing Thoughts...
Building on our understanding of the interactions of affect, behavior, and cognition, you have now seen how subconscious thoughts and feelings can influence your memories, judgements, decisions, and actions without you even realizing it. Those helpful cognitive processes can also bias our decisions about what is fair and reasonable behavior, even to the point at which we do something deeply dishonest, unfair, or even cruel. Only by acknowledging your implicit thoughts and feelings, rather than denying or ignoring them, you can reflect in the moment and correct for their influence before you make the wrong move.
In-Class Learning Objectives
After participating in our class meeting or an interactive online presentation you will be able to answer the following questions:
What is the distinction between explicit and aversive discrimination? Relate this to the difference between implicit and explicit attitudes and explain their roles in aversive discrimination.
What is a schema? What is the advantage of storing information this way? How is this related to the concept of a stereotype?
What is accessibility?
How does the accessibility of a schema influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior?
How does a prime affect schema accessibility?
Describe the methodology and results of:
Dovidio & Gaertner’s (2000) study that demonstrated how aversive bias can lead to biases in ambiguous decisions.
Hodson, Dovidio & Gaertner (2002) study on how bias influences objective admissions decisions (and how participants subconsciously manipulated their reasoning to justify the decision without thinking they were being biased).
What is group polarization and why does it happen? Be prepared to offer two explanations - one using normative influence and another using informational influence.
How might group polarization and the confirmation bias come together to cause more extreme political divides in our country? How do we personally avoid falling victim to this trend?
If you're interested in learning more...
WATCH: Verna Myers: How to overcome our biases? Walk boldly toward them.
"Our biases can be dangerous, even deadly — as we've seen in the cases of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and Eric Garner, in Staten Island, New York. Diversity advocate Verna Myers looks closely at some of the subconscious attitudes we hold toward out-groups. She makes a plea to all people: Acknowledge your biases. Then move toward, not away from, the groups that make you uncomfortable. In a funny, impassioned, important talk, she shows us how." (TED, 2014)
A 2007 study by Gailliot and Baumeister entitled "The physiology of Willpower" examined how glucose affects self-control. The sections listed below include some of the main findings from the study. Though this research is interesting and gives us some insight into how brain physiology is related to conscious action, the exact role of glucose in self-control is complicated.
LOCATE: Gailliot & Baumeister's (2007) study entitled “The Physiology of Willpower.”
READ: Start with the section on the theoretical basis and background (pgs. 305-307), which covers the concept of a limited energy resource, how glucose operates and why self-control depletes it. Then skip ahead to the section that specifically looks at the links between glucose, self-control and violence (pg. 312 through the first paragraph of pg. 314).
STUDENTS - The full paper is in the file section of our Canvas course page
PUBLIC - It appears you can download the full paper here.