Changing nature of archaeological excavation and recording techniques

How do we know?

What is History?

What do we study when we study history?

What are the problems with evidence from the Ancient past?

Research the date for the discovery of:

Pompeii/Herculaneum

The Rosetta stone

Tutankhamen's Tomb

Define:

Archaeologist

Historian

Stratigraphy

Era

Ancient History

Cross referencing

Society

Civilisation

Primary source

Written evidence

Archaeological evidence

Conservation

Heritage

Hypothesis

Evidence

Today archaeology is a precise science. Archaeologists' tools include radioactive carbon dating and geophysical prospecting. The discipline is strongly influenced and even driven by humanities like history and art history. However, it is, at heart, intensely methodical , scientific and technical. But archaeology hasn't always been precise. In fact, it hasn't always been a science, originally it was humanity.

Archaeology originated in 15th and 16th century Europe with the popularity of collecting and Humanism, a type of rational philosophy that held art in high esteem. The inquisitive elite of the Renaissance collected antiquities from ancient Greece and Rome, considering them pieces of art more than historical artifacts. Early archaeology was more like treasure hunting, simply collecting precious objects from the past. They looked for valuable items and were not so interested in things from everyday life.

The desire for antiquities and an interest in the ancients soon led to sponsored excavations and the development of Classical archaeology. Herculaneum and Pompeii, the two famous cities destroyed and preserved by the A.D. 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, were excavated in part because the Queen of Naples longed for ancient statuary .

Napoleon Bonaparte's 1798 invasion of Egypt ushered in a new era in archaeology. In order to understand the Egyptian people and their past, Napoleon brought with him a think tank of 175 scholars. The troop came with its own traveling library, scientific tools and measuring instruments. By 1809, the scholars and scientists published the illustrated "Description of Egypt," a book that helped launch a mania for all things Egyptian. By 1822, Jean-François Champollion had deciphered the Rosetta Stone, unveiling the secrets of ancient Egypt's hieroglyphics

The 20th century opened with radical developments in the field: the 1904 publication of Flinders Petrie's "Methods and Aims in Archaeology" developed a systematic method for excavation. Massive finds like the 1922 discovery of King Tutankhamen's tomb -- helped glamorize archaeology. Archaeologists began to work beyond the Near East, Mediterranean and Europe, and the subject finally became an academic discipline .

Summarise the most significant features of change in archaeological method.

What does this documentary reveal about the beginnings of archaeology?

Why is archaeology like reading a book backward?

First Archaeologists: Giovanni Belzoni-1788-1823

His introduction to the wonders of the ancient world could hardly have been less auspicious. While in Cairo in the summer of 1815, awaiting an audience with Mohammed Ali Pasha, Turkish viceroy of Egypt, the Italian monk-turned-peddler-turned-hydrologist-turned-circus impresario Giovanni Belzoni paid a visit to the Great Pyramid and became so tightly wedged in one of its internal passages that his guides had to forcibly extract him. It was merely the first of many indignities endured by this 6-foot-6 “giant,” whose adventures in the Nile Valley would yield some of the most imposing treasures in the British Museum. They would also earn him the undying enmity of his successors in a field that only later acquired the polish of a professional discipline — archaeology.

While granting that Belzoni may be what a colleague has called “the most notorious tomb robber Egypt has ever known, and while it’s entirely possible to cringe at Belzoni’s methods (blasting through walls with battering rams, crunching bones underfoot and squashing mummies when he sat on them, incising his name into ancient statues) it’s nearly impossible to resist the story of a life.

Belzoni was famous for his circus strongman act of carrying 12 people upon his shoulders dubbed the 12 labors of Hercules.

Belzoni document.docx

Read the following extract from Belzoni's records of his achievements.

Evaluate this description of his discoveries.

What does this show about the early days of archaeology?

What is the main purpose of writing such an account?

Research what Belzoni transported from Egypt.

Belzoni hero or villain of archaeology?

Watch this clip... does it remind you of Belzoni...? Explain how..

Click on this link to learn about the stolen obelisks of Egypt

During the 1800's Egypt was under British colonial rule. With the interest in archaeology developing and the development of the first museums, Egypt became a treasure hunters paradise. Museums paid men such as Belzoni to secure for them priceless treasures for their collections.

On the recommendation of the British consul to Egypt, Belzoni was sent to the to the Ramesseum at Thebes, to remove the colossal bust of Ramesses II. Shipped by Belzoni to England, this piece is still on prominent display at the British Museum . This weighed over 7 tons. It took him 17 days and 130 men to tow it to the river, where he was able to load it on a boat for shipment to the British Museum in London. In modern times the Egyptians have requested the return of the bust so they can restore it to the temple from which it was taken. The British Museum has refused.

Do you think it should be returned?

Generally speaking it is considered a tragedy to removed architecture from it's original location because then the site is compromised. Artifacts are not such a concern as they can be picked up and carried away and should be protected in a museum. The brings into question who owns History? The Ramesses bust in the British museum is a precious peice of history and a prize exhibit in their collection. For the Egyptians it is part of their history and therefore part of their National Identity.

Which group do you think has greater claim to the piece.

Is it important for the sites and and artefacts to be preserved within their country of origin? Why?

What arguments do you think the British Museum could be put forward to say they they should remain the custodians of the Ramesses bust?

How has the site been compromised but the removal of the bust? Look at the photo left.

Destruction of the Mosul Museum

What does History mean to terrorist groups? Why did they destroy the priceless collection?
Outline the causes and issues surrounding the Isis destruction of cultural sites during the civil war in Syria and Iraq.
What was done to try and prevent it?
What was the results of the destruction? What has been lost?

Destruction of Nimrud

Read The Guardian account of the destruction of Nimrud

News report of the destruction of Nimrud

Read the Aljazeera report on the reopening of the Iraq National Museum.

Taking into account the problems in Iraq over the last 20 years, answer the following question again:

Should the Assyrian artefacts be returned to Iraq?

Common Modern Day Archaeological Techniques.

What is the advantage of working in the Wheeler Kenyon grid method?

Describe the main principles of the Wheeler Kenyon method of excavation

The Wheeler-Kenyon Method is a stratigraphic excavation technique used in archaeology to systematically uncover layers of human occupation while preserving detailed records of their relationships. It was developed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler and later refined by Kathleen Kenyon, particularly during her excavations at Jericho and Jerusalem in the mid-20th century.

Key Features of the Wheeler-Kenyon Method

Grid System with Balks
- The excavation area is divided into a grid of squares (typically 5x5 meters).
- Narrow walls of unexcavated soil, called balks, are left between squares.
- These balks preserve a vertical cross-section of the layers, helping archaeologists study the site's stratigraphy.
Stratigraphic Control
- The method emphasizes digging layer by layer, following the natural soil strata rather than artificial levels.
- This ensures that artifacts and structures are recorded in their proper historical context.
Recording and Documentation
- Detailed notes, photographs, and drawings are made at each stage.
- The position of artifacts and features is carefully mapped to analyze how a site evolved over time.
Preservation of Context
- Instead of completely removing layers, archaeologists excavate selectively to maintain an understanding of the site's history.
- This approach reduces damage to earlier deposits and allows for future re-examination.

Advantages of the Wheeler-Kenyon Method

✔ Better Stratigraphic Understanding: Helps reconstruct a site's historical sequence accurately.
✔ Preservation of Layers: The balks allow future archaeologists to reanalyze the layers.
✔ Controlled Excavation: Reduces accidental removal of important evidence.

Criticism and Evolution

Some argue the method can be too slow and restrictive, as the balks can obscure features.
Many modern archaeologists use a modified version, combining open-area excavation with stratigraphic analysis

UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY

Underwater Archaeological Methods

Underwater archaeology involves the study of submerged sites such as shipwrecks, sunken cities, and ancient harbors. Since excavation underwater presents unique challenges, specialized methods and equipment are used to locate, document, and recover artifacts while preserving the site's context.

Key Methods in Underwater Archaeology

1. Survey and Mapping Techniques

Before excavation, archaeologists must locate and document the site.

Remote Sensing
- Side-Scan Sonar: Uses sound waves to create detailed images of the seafloor, detecting shipwrecks or submerged structures.
- Multibeam Sonar: Produces high-resolution 3D maps of underwater terrain.
- Magnetometry: Detects metal objects like shipwrecks or cannons by measuring magnetic field variations.
- Sub-Bottom Profiling: Identifies buried structures or sediment layers beneath the seafloor.
Diver Surveys
- Trained divers conduct visual inspections, using underwater photography and sketching to record findings.
- Grid Systems: Similar to land excavations, a grid is sometimes placed over a site to maintain spatial accuracy.

2. Excavation Techniques

Underwater excavation is challenging due to currents, visibility, and sediment disturbance.

Water Dredges and Airlifts
- These suction devices carefully remove sediment while preserving delicate artifacts.
- Airlifts use compressed air to lift sediment without damaging buried objects.
Hand Tools
- Trowels, brushes, and underwater vacuums help uncover fragile remains without damaging them.
Photogrammetry and 3D Mapping
- High-resolution cameras capture detailed images from multiple angles, creating 3D reconstructions of shipwrecks and ruins.

3. Preservation and Conservation

Artifacts recovered from underwater environments require special treatment to prevent decay.

Desalination: Objects are soaked in fresh water to remove absorbed salts.
Chemical Stabilization: Organic materials (wood, textiles) are treated with chemicals like PEG (polyethylene glycol) to prevent shrinkage.
Electrolysis: Metal artifacts (anchors, weapons) are preserved by reversing corrosion.

4. Deep-Sea Archaeology

For sites too deep for human divers, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are used.

ROVs: Equipped with cameras and robotic arms to explore and collect samples.
AUVs: Pre-programmed drones that survey deep-sea sites autonomously.

Notable Underwater Archaeological Sites

Uluburun Shipwreck (Turkey, 14th century BCE): One of the oldest known trade shipwrecks.
Antikythera Wreck (Greece, 1st century BCE): Home to the famous Antikythera Mechanism.
Pavlopetri (Greece, 5000 years old): One of the world's oldest submerged cities.

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