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Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Fungi
The Fungi, are well-known as mushrooms, toadstools, molds, and morels. Along with bacteria, fungi are the fundamental decomposers in nature, and the cause of many plant diseases, pneumonia, and ringworm. Humans use fungi for production of alcohol, cheese, penicillin, cyclosporin, as well as culinary delicacies. They are of great importance to plants because they form important symbiotic relationships with plant roots, called mycorrhizae.
They are organisms that may appear plant-like, but are more closely related to animals. They belong to a group called the opisthokonts, sharing similarities in how their sex cells are constructed. The body of a fungus has a mass of thread-like strands, called hyphae or mycelium. Some have an algae construction (thalloid). All fungi have chitin in their cells walls (similar to animals)
Form & Ecology
Form & Ecology
Fungi are filamentous in construction, with strands called hyphae
A mass of hyphae ("white fuzz") is called mycelium
Chitin found in cell walls is a synapomorphy for the fungus clade
Classification
Classification
└Opisthokonta: Fungi and Animals
└Holomycota
└Eumycota
├Chytrids(Chytridiomycota): Aquatic fungi
├Molds (Mucoromycota): Bread molds; fruit molds
├Arbuscular mycorrhizae (Glomeromycetes)
├Club fungi (Basidiomycota): Mushrooms, Toadstools, Shelf fungi, etc.
├Sac fungi (Ascomycota): Morels, Truffles
└Incertae Sedis - Unclassified
Lifecycle
Lifecycle
Haplontic life cycle in most (except chytrids)
Feeding phase is haploid
During reproduction, strands of different organisms combine to form a larger reproductive structure, such as a mushroom
The cells from each organism fuse together, but the nuclei do not fuse
This condition is called dikaryotic, in which each cell has two nuclei
When the structure is mature, these nuclei fuse together to create the only diploid cell in the lifecycle
This diploid cell then goes through meiosis to produce haploid spores
Geologic Age
Geologic Age
Neoproterozoic - present
Additional Resources
Additional Resources
Four fungi related to species that hijack brains of insects discovered in Thailand (Phys.org 11Jul2025)
└Mongkolsamrit et al. (2025) Multi-locus molecular phylogenetic analysis reveals four new species and a new record of Ophiocordyceps (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) on dipteran hosts in Thailand
Most plant-friendly fungi are a mystery to scientists (The Conversation 5Jul2025)
└van Galen et al. (2025) The biogeography and conservation of Earth's 'dark' ectomycorrhizal fungi,
Rain showers can dramatically impact fungal communities in urban lakes (Phys.org 7Jul2025)
└Li et al. (2025) Rainfall's ripple effect: unveiling the hidden impact on planktonic fungi in urban lakes
Common farm fungicide may be contributing to 'insect apocalypse' (Phys.org 30Jun2025)
└Dissawa et al. (2025) Chlorothalonil exposure impacts larval development and adult reproductive performance in Drosophila melanogaster
Fossil fungi trapped in amber reveal ancient origin of parasitic zombie-ants (27Jun2025)
└Zhuang et al. (2025) Cretaceous entomopathogenic fungi illuminate the early evolution of insect–fungal associations
Pharaoh’s Curse Fungus Becomes Potent Cancer Fighter (ScineceBlog 23Jun2025)
└Nie et al. (2025) A class of benzofuranoindoline-bearing heptacyclic fungal RiPPs with anticancer activities
Searching for Hidden Fungi in the Sonoran Desert (Inside Climate News 22Jun2025)
Enzymes from fungi can be used to extract plant components for biofuels and bioplastics (Phys.org 18Jun2025)
└Giorgianni et al. (2025) Interaction of class III cellobiose dehydrogenase with lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase
Coveted red dye may owe its origins to a hidden fungal partner in lac insects (Phys.org 17Jun2025)
└Vaishally et al. (2025) An endosymbiotic origin of the crimson pigment from the lac insect
Yeast Converts Human Urine Into Valuable Bone Material (ScienceBlog 17Jun2025)
└Muller et al. (2025) Cost-effective urine recycling enabled by a synthetic osteoyeast platform for production of hydroxyapatite
Mysterious fungi: Researchers pinpoint hotspots of 'dark taxa' across Earth's underground ecosystems (Phys.org 10Jun2025)
└van Galen et al. (2025) The biogeography and conservation of Earth’s ‘dark’ ectomycorrhizal fungi
Africa has the highest rate of forest loss in the world—what the G20 can do about it (The Conversation, 4Jun2025)
Bacteria hitch a ride on yeast puddles to zoom around (Phys.org, 4Jun2025)
└Badal et al. (2025) Dynamic fluid layer around immotile yeast colonies mediates the spread of bacteria
Yeast reveals how species adapt to a warmer climate (Phys.org, 21May2025)
└Molinet & Stelkens (2025) The evolution of thermal performance curves in response to rising temperatures across the model genus yeast
How lichens are bringing stone to life and reconnecting us with the natural world (The Conversation, 19May2025)
Lichens could survive on Mars (Phys.org, 8Apr2025)
└Skubala et al. (2025) Ionizing radiation resilience: how metabolically active lichens endure exposure to the simulated Mars atmosphere
Inoculating soil with mycorrhizal fungi can increase plant yield by up to 40% (Phys.org, 29Nov2023)
└Lutz et al. 2023. Soil microbiome indicators can predict crop growth response to large-scale inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Mycorrhizae may help store more than a third of fossil fuel emissions (ZME Science, 6Jun2023)
└Hawkins et al. 2023. Mycorrhizal mycelium as a global carbon pool
Are Trees Talking Underground? For Scientists, It's In Dispute (NY Times 7Nov2022)
The Idea That Trees Talk to Cooperate Is Misleading (SciAm 19Jul2021)
Lichens are a symbiosis of three (not two) partners (Science 2016)
Plants force fungal partners to behave fairly (University of Zurich 2016)
Researchers evolve a multicellular yeast in the lab in 2 months (Ratcliff et al., 2011)
Mycorrhizae may not be mutually beneficial (IIASA, 2014)
On Fungi and Forest Diversity (In Defense of Plants, 2017)
Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizae (Brundrett, 2002)
Findings suggest that fungal mycelia can 'recognize' shapes (Phys.org 8Oct2024)
└Fukasawa et al. (2024) Spatial resource arrangement influences both network structures and activity of fungal mycelia: A form of pattern recognition?
Fungi "sweat" to stay cool (LiveScience 5Jun2023)
└Cordero et al. (2023) The hypothermic nature of fungi
The Toxin That Helps Oyster Mushrooms Devour Worm Flesh (NY Times 18Jan2023)
Berkeley Chytrid Page
Frogs, once used for pregnancy tests, were attacked by chytrids
Stinky Cheese is the Result of Evolutionary Overdrive - New York Times (Sep. 2015)
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