Embedded Files
Chapter 1
Vocabulary Chapter 1
ethics: Derived from the Greek word ethos, which refers to those values, norms, beliefs, and expectations that determine how people within a culture live and act. Ethics steps back from such standards for how people do act, and reflects on the standards by which people should live and act. At its most basic level, ethics is concerned with how we act and how we live our lives. Ethics involves what is perhaps the most monumental question any human being can ask: How should we live? Following from this original Greek usage, ethics can refer to both the standards by which an individual chooses to live her or his own personal life and the standards by which individuals live in community with others (see also morality). As a branch of philosophy, ethics is the discipline that systematically studies questions of how we ought to live our lives.
descriptive ethics: As practiced by many social scientists, provides a descriptive and empirical account of those standards that actually guide behavior, as opposed to those standards that should guide behavior. Contrast with normative ethics.
normative ethics: As a normative discipline, ethics deals with norms and standards of appropriate and proper (normal) behavior. Norms establish the guidelines or standards for determining what we should do, how we should act, what type of person we should be. Contrast with descriptive ethics.
morality: Sometimes used to denote the phenomena studied by the field of ethics. This text uses morality to refer to those aspects of ethics involving personal, individual decision making. “How should I live my life?” or “What type of person ought I be?” are taken to be the basic questions of morality. Morality can be distinguished from questions of social justice, which address issues of how communities and social organizations ought to be structured.
norms: shared rules, expectations, or standards that guide and regulate the behavior of individuals within a group, community, or society. They can be formal (written and legally enforced) or informal (unwritten and culturally understood) and serve as a framework for social order and cooperation.
cultural norms: the shared expectations, values, beliefs, and behaviors that govern interactions and practices within a specific cultural group. They serve as informal rules that members of the group follow to maintain social order, cohesion, and identity.
judgement: refers to the cognitive process of evaluating information, situations, or actions to make decisions or form opinions. It involves reasoning, analysis, and discernment to arrive at conclusions that are rational, fair, or morally sound.
opinion: a belief, viewpoint, or judgment that an individual holds about a particular topic, situation, or idea. Unlike facts, opinions are subjective and often influenced by personal experiences, emotions, and values. They may or may not be based on evidence or logical reasoning.
conformity to authority: refers to the tendency of individuals to follow orders, directives, or expectations set by those in positions of power or authority, even when such actions conflict with personal beliefs, values, or ethical considerations. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior that can have both positive and negative implications.
obedience: refers to the act of complying with orders, directives, or instructions from an authority figure. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior, playing a critical role in maintaining order and structure in families, organizations, and societies.
ethos: a rhetorical and philosophical concept referring to the credibility, character, or ethical appeal of a speaker, writer, or organization. It is one of the three primary modes of persuasion identified by Aristotle, alongside logos (logical appeal) and pathos (emotional appeal). Ethos is critical in establishing trust and authority, influencing an audience’s willingness to accept a message.
social justice: refers to the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society, ensuring fairness and equality for all individuals. It emphasizes the protection of human rights, the elimination of discrimination, and the pursuit of a just society where every individual can thrive regardless of their background, identity, or circumstances.
responsible decision making: is the process of making thoughtful, informed, and ethical choices that consider the potential consequences on oneself, others, and the broader community. It involves balancing short-term and long-term outcomes, adhering to personal and societal values, and taking accountability for actions.
contemporary vernacular: refers to the everyday language, expressions, and cultural idioms used by people in a particular place, time, or community. It encompasses informal, colloquial speech and writing that reflects current trends, societal norms, and cultural influences. Unlike formal or academic language, the vernacular evolves dynamically with societal changes and technological advancements.
“walk the talk”: an idiomatic expression that emphasizes the importance of aligning actions with words. It means demonstrating integrity by living up to one’s promises, values, or statements through consistent behavior. In essence, it encourages practicing what one preaches.
skeptic: is someone who questions or doubts accepted beliefs, claims, or statements, seeking evidence or rational justification before accepting them as true. Skepticism is not about rejecting ideas outright but about critically examining them to avoid being misled by assumptions, biases, or misinformation.
dogmatism: a rigid and uncompromising adherence to beliefs, opinions, or doctrines without considering evidence, alternative perspectives, or the possibility of being wrong. It often involves the assertion of ideas as indisputable truths, discouraging critical thinking and open-minded discussion.
relativism: the philosophical view that truth, morality, and values are not absolute but depend on individual, cultural, or situational contexts. It challenges the notion of universal principles by suggesting that what is true or right varies based on perspective, culture, or circumstances.
dilemma of dogmatism and relativism: arises from the tension between two seemingly opposing philosophical approaches to truth, morality, and values: Dogmatism: Asserts that there are absolute truths or principles that are universally valid and unchangeable. Relativism: Argues that truth and morality are subjective, context-dependent, and vary across individuals, cultures, or situations. Both positions have strengths and weaknesses, and their coexistence presents challenges for navigating complex issues in philosophy, ethics, and society.
value relativism: the philosophical view that moral values, cultural norms, or personal beliefs are not absolute but rather relative to the specific individual, culture, or context in which they arise. It asserts that no single standard of morality or value system is universally applicable, and what is considered "right" or "wrong" depends on the perspective of the observer or the societal framework.
unreasonable decision: is one made without logical justification, sound reasoning, or consideration of evidence and context. Such decisions often defy common sense, ignore potential consequences, or prioritize irrational motives over rational judgment.
irresponsible decision: is one made without considering its consequences, obligations, or the potential harm it may cause to individuals, organizations, or society. Such decisions often neglect accountability, ethical considerations, or due diligence, leading to negative outcomes.
virtues: Those character traits or behavioral habits that constitute a good human life, a life worth living. The virtues provide answers to the basic ethical question “What kind of person should I be?” Examples might include the character traits of trustworthiness, honesty, friendliness, kindness, modesty, moderation, and courage.
social ethics: The area of ethics that is concerned with how we should live together in community with others and how social organizations ought to be structured. Social ethics involves questions of political, economic, civic, and cultural norms aimed at promoting human well-being.
separation thesis: The separation thesis asserts that ordinary ethical standards should be kept separate from, and not be used to judge, business decisions because business has its own standards of good and bad.
legal compliance: refers to the adherence of individuals, organizations, and entities to laws, regulations, standards, and ethical guidelines relevant to their operations or activities. It is a fundamental requirement for ensuring lawful behavior, maintaining order, and avoiding legal consequences.
ambiguity: refers to the presence of multiple interpretations, meanings, or outcomes, often resulting in uncertainty or confusion. It can arise in language, actions, situations, or ideas, where clarity is lacking, or the intended meaning is unclear.
Americans with Disabilities Act: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or ADA is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability.
Enron: An energy company based in Houston, Texas, that Fortune magazine named America’s most innovative company for six consecutive years before it was discovered to have been involved in one of the largest instances of accounting fraud in world history. In 2001, with over 21,000 employees, it filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history and disclosed a scandal that resulted in the loss of millions of dollars, thousands of jobs, the downfall of Big Five accounting firm Arthur Andersen LLP, at least one suicide, and several trials and convictions, among other consequences.
complicit: refers to being involved in or associated with wrongdoing, often by enabling, supporting, or passively allowing unethical or illegal actions to occur. Complicity implies a degree of responsibility, even if the individual or entity does not directly perpetrate the harmful act.
fraudulent banking accounts: accounts created or used with the intent to deceive, commit financial fraud, or engage in other illicit activities. These accounts may be established with false information or manipulated for illegal purposes, undermining the integrity of the financial system.
individual freedom: also known as personal liberty, refers to the ability of individuals to act, think, and make choices independently, without undue interference or restriction by others, particularly by external authorities such as governments, organizations, or societal norms. It is a foundational concept in philosophy, politics, and ethics.
ethical relativism: An important perspective within the philosophical study of ethics that holds that ethical values and judgments are ultimately dependent on, or relative to, one’s culture, society, or personal feelings. Relativism therefore denies that we can make rational or objective ethical judgments
common rational basis: refers to a shared foundation of reasoning or principles that different individuals, groups, or systems can agree upon when addressing issues, making decisions, or resolving disputes. It serves as a neutral and universally accessible framework for understanding and evaluating arguments or actions.
philosophical ethics: moral philosophy, is the branch of philosophy that examines questions about morality, values, and principles of right and wrong. It involves systematic reasoning to understand how individuals and societies should act and what constitutes a good or just life.
elucidate: to make something clear, explain, or shed light on a subject that might be complex or difficult to understand. The term derives from the Latin word elucidare, which means "to make clear" or "to illuminate."
quid pro quo: (Latin: "something for something") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; "a favor for a favor". Phrases with similar meanings include: "give and take", "tit for tat", "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours", "this for that," and "one hand washes the other".
Harvey Weinstein: In October 2017, The New York Times and The New Yorker reported that dozens of women had accused the American film producer Harvey Weinstein of rape, sexual assault and sexual abuse over a period of at least 30 years.
#MeToo movement: is a social movement and awareness campaign against sexual abuse, sexual harassment and rape culture, in which women publicize their experiences of sexual abuse or sexual harassment.
workplace discrimination: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
inequality of power: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
self-respect: refers to an individual's recognition of their inherent worth, dignity, and value. It involves maintaining a sense of pride, confidence, and ethical alignment in one’s actions, decisions, and personal identity. Self-respect is closely tied to self-esteem but emphasizes moral and ethical congruence in one’s behavior.
integrity: refers to the quality of being honest, ethical, and consistent in one's values, actions, and principles. It involves doing the right thing even when it is difficult or when no one is watching. Integrity is foundational to trust, accountability, and ethical behavior in personal, professional, and societal contexts.
personal autonomy: refers to an individual's capacity to make free, informed, and independent decisions about their life and actions. It embodies the idea of self-governance and the ability to act according to one's values, beliefs, and desires without undue external influence or coercion.
agency: refers to the capacity of individuals or entities to make choices, take actions, and exert influence over their circumstances and environment. It encompasses autonomy, intentionality, and the ability to pursue goals based on personal or collective values.
social harm: refers to actions, behaviors, or conditions that negatively affect the well-being, stability, and cohesion of society. It encompasses a broad range of harms, from physical violence to systemic inequalities, that undermine the ability of individuals or groups to thrive within their communities.
sexual harassment: refers to unwanted and unwelcome behavior of a sexual nature that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment. It undermines the dignity, autonomy, and equality of individuals, making it both a moral and legal violation.
coercion: refers to the practice of compelling someone to act in a certain way or make a particular decision through threats, force, or manipulation. It undermines an individual's autonomy by imposing external pressure that limits their ability to make free and voluntary choices.
cultural relativism: A factual claim about cultures holding that, in fact, the values and ethos of cultures differ. To be distinguished from ethical relativism which holds, often on the basis of cultural relativism, that there is no way to make cross-cultural ethical judgments.
moral imagination: the ability to envision and evaluate potential responses to ethical dilemmas by creatively considering the perspectives, values, and needs of others. It allows individuals to transcend conventional thinking and explore innovative, empathetic, and ethically sound solutions to complex problems.
public scrutiny: refers to the close examination and critical observation of individuals, organizations, policies, or actions by the public. It plays a crucial role in promoting accountability, transparency, and ethical behavior in various domains such as politics, business, and social life.
Section 230: In the United States, Section 230 is a section of the Communications Act of 1934 that was enacted as part of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, which is Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and generally provides immunity for online computer services with respect to third-party content generated by its users.
informed consent: a process in which an individual voluntarily agrees to participate in a procedure, treatment, or activity after being fully informed of its purpose, potential risks, benefits, and alternatives. It is a cornerstone of ethical practice in medicine, research, and other fields where decisions affect a person's body, rights, or well-being.
· business ethics:
· https://www.britannica.com/topic/business-ethics
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_ethics
· Youtube:
· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fMLIMaPw0I (DesJardins)
· https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=business+ethics
· Politics/Jan 6th:
· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gkl2NoEznqA (Epidemic of Lying in Politics)
· https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=January+6th
· https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/12/23/us/ethics-report-on-gaetz.html
· https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=techno+feudalism
· Section 230:
· Study.com:
· https://study.com/academy/lesson/business-ethics-in-contemporary-businesses.html
· https://study.com/academy/course/business-ethics.html
· https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-decision-making.html
· https://study.com/academy/lesson/western-theories-of-ethics.html
• Ethics, Morals & Values | Definition, Examples & Differences
• Euthyphro by Plato | Summary, Ethics & Analysis
• Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics | Overview & Summary
· Khan Academy:
·
· Cases:
· https://business.uccs.edu/resources/ethics/teaching/ethics-cases-and-debates?utm_source=chatgpt.com
· https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/business-ethics/resources/cases/?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Facebook:
· https://www.axios.com/2021/12/12/facebook-bosworth-covid-misinformation
· https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/09/opinion/chris-hughes-facebook.html?searchResultPosition=3
· https://time.com/6104863/facebook-regulation-roger-mcnamee/
· https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-facebook-files-11631713039
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Facebook_leak
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Haugen
• https://www.npr.org/2021/10/05/1043377310/facebook-whistleblower-frances-haugen-congress https://www.amazon.com/Social-Network-Jesse-Eisenberg/dp/B0B6DN1F8F/ref=sr_1_3?crid=2CR5XKUKP0XY3&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.rmy6MpJjbT8npenkmwhd6r3_YT738b1tslnCf3KKgkjeu0FAdPa3BC4OjPyIOfPBmpEai-AhIB7veUJ1wLhjPI7jcmE2hbjypFMIdyeJlHhnxkOwZQhl5S5eC7zKefnGNcfSAROApeaXRZ9ME06_qGB4KyrziS0fc4goSppb7N6np9fFQ4Ulh1B3p1UNr5h6Yyqf6BzQ9LNfKxZZkQij1wxBhblcb4Y-iikMfqh85s0.XgAEPGeMF7YIDtvLyWhXiDs7G_leqGyPKjmI-BkCTbs&dib_tag=se&keywords=social+network&qid=1735924913&sprefix=social+netwe%2Caps%2C116&sr=8-3 (movie)
• https://www.netflix.com/title/80117542 (movie)
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Hack
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Lx5VmAdZSI
· https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mark+zuckerberg+senate+hearing
· movies:
· https://watchdocumentaries.com/enron-the-smartest-guys-in-the-room/
· AI Ethics:
· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGwYtUzMQUk
PDF PPT CHAPTER 1 MACROECONOMICS.pptx.pdfChapter 2
PDF PPT CHAPTER 02 PDP BIZ ETHICS '24.pptx.pdfVocabulary Chapter 2
ethics (practical, concrete): refers to those opinions, beliefs, and values that guide a person’s life and decisions. This is the practical side of ethics that we experience in everyday life. In this sense, we might speak of the Facebook executives as having no ethics, or we might refer to the Facebook whistleblowers as having high ethical standards. This meaning of ethics can be applied not only to individuals but also to organizations or even entire societies, as when we might conclude that Facebook lacked a strong ethical culture.
ethics (the academic field - an abstraction): identifies an academic field that studies those opinions, beliefs, and values in order to reach conclusions about the reasonableness of those opinions, beliefs, and values. In this sense, one engages in the discipline of ethics by stepping back from the actual everyday decisions that people make to reflect on and evaluate them. Are they the right ones? Why? Should they guide our decisions? Why? What decisions should be made?
social ethics: The area of ethics that is concerned with how we should live together in community with others and how social organizations ought to be structured. Social ethics involves questions of political, economic, civic, and cultural norms aimed at promoting human well-being.
public policy: refers to the principles, actions, and decisions implemented by governments to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the public good. It encompasses laws, regulations, programs, and funding priorities designed to achieve specific objectives.
descriptive ethics: teaching & learning about the academic field of ethics.
normative ethics: ethics deals with norms and standards of appropriate and proper (normal) behavior. Norms establish guidelines or standards for determining what we should do, how we should act, what type of person we should be.
ethos: the cultural expectations/habits/customs/norms/traditions, etc. (based on the environment – family, society, company, organization, etc.) for how we should live, what we conform to. The ethos (of Facebook/Enron, etc.) allowed whatever happened in those companies. We may view our own ethos as our default position on any issue.
norms: shared rules, expectations, or standards that guide and regulate the behavior of individuals within a group, community, or society. They can be formal (written and legally enforced) or informal (unwritten and culturally understood) and serve as a framework for social order and cooperation.
cultural norms: the shared expectations, values, beliefs, and behaviors that govern interactions and practices within a specific cultural group. They serve as informal rules that members of the group follow to maintain social order, cohesion, and identity.
morality: refers to those aspects of ethics involving personal, individual decision making. “How should I live my life?” or “What type of person ought I be?” are taken to be the basic questions of morality. Morality can be distinguished from questions of social justice, which address issues of how communities and social organizations ought to be structured.
judgement: refers to the cognitive process of evaluating information, situations, or actions to make decisions or form opinions. It involves reasoning, analysis, and discernment to arrive at conclusions that are rational, fair, or morally sound.
rational judgement: refers to the process of making decisions based on logic, reason, and evidence, rather than emotions, biases, or arbitrary factors. It involves evaluating information critically and systematically to arrive at the most reasonable conclusion or action.
ethical judgment: the process of evaluating actions, decisions, or policies based on moral principles, values, and the impact on others. It involves determining what is right or wrong, just or unjust, and choosing a course of action aligned with ethical standards.
ethical behavior: refers to actions and decisions that align with moral principles, societal norms, and values. It involves treating others with fairness, respect, and integrity while promoting the well-being of individuals and society.
responsible decision making: is the process of making thoughtful, informed, and ethical choices that consider the potential consequences on oneself, others, and the broader community. It involves balancing short-term and long-term outcomes, adhering to personal and societal values, and taking accountability for actions.
unreasonable decision: is one made without logical justification, sound reasoning, or consideration of evidence and context. Such decisions often defy common sense, ignore potential consequences, or prioritize irrational motives over rational judgment.
irresponsible decision: is one made without considering its consequences, obligations, or the potential harm it may cause to individuals, organizations, or society. Such decisions often neglect accountability, ethical considerations, or due diligence, leading to negative outcomes.
opinion: a belief, viewpoint, or judgment that an individual holds about a particular topic, situation, or idea. Unlike facts, opinions are subjective and often influenced by personal experiences, emotions, and values. They may or may not be based on evidence or logical reasoning.
conformity/submission/obedience to authority: refers to the tendency of individuals to follow orders, directives, or expectations set by those in positions of power or authority, even when such actions conflict with personal beliefs, values, or ethical considerations. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior that can have both positive and negative implications.
obedience: refers to the act of complying with orders, directives, or instructions from an authority figure. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior, playing a critical role in maintaining order and structure in families, organizations, and societies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=milgram+experiment+documentary
Can conformity to authority be a source of ethics?
social justice: refers to the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society, ensuring fairness and equality for all individuals. It emphasizes the protection of human rights, the elimination of discrimination, and the pursuit of a just society where every individual can thrive regardless of their background, identity, or circumstances.
contemporary vernacular: refers to the everyday language, expressions, and cultural idioms used by people in a particular place, time, or community. It encompasses informal, colloquial speech and writing that reflects current trends, societal norms, and cultural influences. Unlike formal or academic language, the vernacular evolves dynamically with societal changes and technological advancements.
“walk the talk”: an idiomatic expression that emphasizes the importance of aligning actions with words. It means demonstrating integrity by living up to one’s promises, values, or statements through consistent behavior. In essence, it encourages practicing what one preaches.
skeptic: is someone who questions or doubts accepted beliefs, claims, or statements, seeking evidence or rational justification before accepting them as true. Skepticism is not about rejecting ideas outright but about critically examining them to avoid being misled by assumptions, biases, or misinformation.
dogmatism: a rigid and uncompromising adherence to beliefs, opinions, or doctrines without considering evidence, alternative perspectives, or the possibility of being wrong. It often involves the assertion of ideas as indisputable truths, discouraging critical thinking and open-minded discussion.
relativism: the philosophical view that truth, morality, and values are not absolute but depend on individual, cultural, or situational contexts. It challenges the notion of universal principles by suggesting that what is true or right varies based on perspective, culture, or circumstances.
dilemma of dogmatism and relativism: arises from the tension between two seemingly opposing philosophical approaches to truth, morality, and values: Dogmatism: Asserts that there are absolute truths or principles that are universally valid and unchangeable. Relativism: Argues that truth and morality are subjective, context-dependent, and vary across individuals, cultures, or situations. Both positions have strengths and weaknesses, and their coexistence presents challenges for navigating complex issues in philosophy, ethics, and society.
virtues: Those character traits or behavioral habits that constitute a good human life, a life worth living. The virtues provide answers to the basic ethical question “What kind of person should I be?” Examples might include the character traits of trustworthiness, honesty, friendliness, kindness, modesty, moderation, and courage.
vices: a habit, behavior, or characteristic considered morally wrong, harmful, or detrimental to oneself or others. It is often the opposite of virtue and reflects moral weaknesses, poor judgment, or a lack of ethical standards; include describing someone as greedy, selfish, arrogant, condescending, deceitful, a hypocrite.
separation thesis: The separation thesis asserts that ordinary ethical standards should be kept separate from, and not be used to judge, business decisions because business has its own standards of good and bad.
legal compliance: refers to the adherence of individuals, organizations, and entities to laws, regulations, standards, and ethical guidelines relevant to their operations or activities. It is a fundamental requirement for ensuring lawful behavior, maintaining order, and avoiding legal consequences.
ambiguity: refers to the presence of multiple interpretations, meanings, or outcomes, often resulting in uncertainty or confusion. It can arise in language, actions, situations, or ideas, where clarity is lacking, or the intended meaning is unclear.
Americans with Disabilities Act: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or ADA is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability.
Enron: An energy company based in Houston, Texas, that Fortune magazine named America’s most innovative company for six consecutive years before it was discovered to have been involved in one of the largest instances of accounting fraud in world history. In 2001, with over 21,000 employees, it filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history and disclosed a scandal that resulted in the loss of millions of dollars, thousands of jobs, the downfall of Big Five accounting firm Arthur Andersen LLP, at least one suicide, and several trials and convictions, among other consequences.
complicit: refers to being involved in or associated with wrongdoing, often by enabling, supporting, or passively allowing unethical or illegal actions to occur. Complicity implies a degree of responsibility, even if the individual or entity does not directly perpetrate the harmful act.
fraudulent banking accounts: accounts created or used with the intent to deceive, commit financial fraud, or engage in other illicit activities. These accounts may be established with false information or manipulated for illegal purposes, undermining the integrity of the financial system.
individual freedom: also known as personal liberty, refers to the ability of individuals to act, think, and make choices independently, without undue interference or restriction by others, particularly by external authorities such as governments, organizations, or societal norms. It is a foundational concept in philosophy, politics, and ethics.
ethical relativism: An important perspective within the philosophical study of ethics that holds that ethical values and judgments are ultimately dependent on, or relative to, one’s culture, society, or personal feelings. Relativism therefore denies that we can make rational or objective ethical judgments.
cultural relativism: A factual claim about cultures holding that, in fact, the values and ethos of cultures differ. To be distinguished from ethical relativism which holds, often on the basis of cultural relativism, that there is no way to make cross-cultural ethical judgments.
value relativism: the philosophical view that moral values, cultural norms, or personal beliefs are not absolute but rather relative to the specific individual, culture, or context in which they arise. It asserts that no single standard of morality or value system is universally applicable, and what is considered "right" or "wrong" depends on the perspective of the observer or the societal framework.
common rational basis: refers to a shared foundation of reasoning or principles that different individuals, groups, or systems can agree upon when addressing issues, making decisions, or resolving disputes. It serves as a neutral and universally accessible framework for understanding and evaluating arguments or actions.
elucidate: to make something clear, explain, or shed light on a subject that might be complex or difficult to understand. The term derives from the Latin word elucidare, which means "to make clear" or "to illuminate."
quid pro quo: (Latin: "something for something") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; "a favor for a favor". Phrases with similar meanings include: "give and take", "tit for tat", "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours", "this for that," and "one hand washes the other".
Harvey Weinstein: In October 2017, The New York Times and The New Yorker reported that dozens of women had accused the American film producer Harvey Weinstein of rape, sexual assault and sexual abuse over a period of at least 30 years.
#MeToo movement: is a social movement and awareness campaign against sexual abuse, sexual harassment and rape culture, in which women publicize their experiences of sexual abuse or sexual harassment.
workplace discrimination: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
inequality of power: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
self-respect: refers to an individual's recognition of their inherent worth, dignity, and value. It involves maintaining a sense of pride, confidence, and ethical alignment in one’s actions, decisions, and personal identity. Self-respect is closely tied to self-esteem but emphasizes moral and ethical congruence in one’s behavior.
integrity: refers to the quality of being honest, ethical, and consistent in one's values, actions, and principles. It involves doing the right thing even when it is difficult or when no one is watching. Integrity is foundational to trust, accountability, and ethical behavior in personal, professional, and societal contexts.
personal autonomy: refers to an individual's capacity to make free, informed, and independent decisions about their life and actions. It embodies the idea of self-governance and the ability to act according to one's values, beliefs, and desires without undue external influence or coercion.
agency: refers to the capacity of individuals or entities to make choices, take actions, and exert influence over their circumstances and environment. It encompasses autonomy, intentionality, and the ability to pursue goals based on personal or collective values.
social harm: refers to actions, behaviors, or conditions that negatively affect the well-being, stability, and cohesion of society. It encompasses a broad range of harms, from physical violence to systemic inequalities, that undermine the ability of individuals or groups to thrive within their communities.
sexual harassment: refers to unwanted and unwelcome behavior of a sexual nature that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment. It undermines the dignity, autonomy, and equality of individuals, making it both a moral and legal violation.
coercion: refers to the practice of compelling someone to act in a certain way or make a particular decision through threats, force, or manipulation. It undermines an individual's autonomy by imposing external pressure that limits their ability to make free and voluntary choices.
moral imagination: the ability to envision and evaluate potential responses to ethical dilemmas by creatively considering the perspectives, values, and needs of others. It allows individuals to transcend conventional thinking and explore innovative, empathetic, and ethically sound solutions to complex problems.
public scrutiny: refers to the close examination and critical observation of individuals, organizations, policies, or actions by the public. It plays a crucial role in promoting accountability, transparency, and ethical behavior in various domains such as politics, business, and social life.
Section 230: In the United States, Section 230 is a section of the Communications Act of 1934 that was enacted as part of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, which is Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and generally provides immunity for online computer services with respect to third-party content generated by its users.
informed consent: a process in which an individual voluntarily agrees to participate in a procedure, treatment, or activity after being fully informed of its purpose, potential risks, benefits, and alternatives. It is a cornerstone of ethical practice in medicine, research, and other fields where decisions affect a person's body, rights, or well-being.
gatekeeper: In business ethics, gatekeepers are professionals or entities responsible for overseeing and ensuring the integrity of corporate conduct. They play a crucial role in maintaining transparency, accountability, and ethical standards within organizations and the broader market. Roles and Responsibilities: Auditors: Examine financial statements to ensure accuracy and compliance with accounting standards, thereby fostering trust among investors and stakeholders. Lawyers: Advise corporations on legal obligations and ethical considerations, ensuring that business practices adhere to laws and regulations. Financial Analysts: Provide assessments of a company's financial health, influencing investment decisions and market perceptions. Regulatory Bodies: Enforce laws and regulations to maintain fair practices and protect public interests. Gatekeepers serve as the first line of defense against corporate misconduct. Their ethical responsibility extends beyond mere compliance; they are expected to act in the public interest, preventing fraud and ensuring that businesses operate transparently and honestly.
Attorney Client Privilege: The attorney-client privilege is one of the oldest and most respected privileges. It prevents a lawyer from being compelled to testify against his/her client. The purpose underlying this privilege is to ensure that clients receive accurate and competent legal advice by encouraging full disclosure to their lawyer without fear that the information will be revealed to others.
misinformation: false or misleading information.
disinformation: which is false or misleading information that is intentionally promoted.
civil liberties: fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to individuals, typically protected by law or constitutional provisions, that ensure personal autonomy and limit government power. These liberties allow individuals to act freely without unwarranted interference, promoting dignity, fairness, and equality within society. Include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, press, and protection from arbitrary government actions. Rooted in Enlightenment principles and natural rights theories, prominently in the works of Locke, Rousseau, and Mill.
civic virtue: The cultivation of habits, attitudes, and behaviors that promote the common good and active participation in public life. Involves responsibility, integrity, and engagement in activities that benefit the community and society as a whole. Originates in classical philosophy, particularly in the works of Aristotle and Cicero, emphasizing the role of citizens in supporting a just society.
civil rights: are legal protections that ensure individuals' equality and freedom from discrimination in various spheres of life, such as race, gender, religion, and disability. Focus on guaranteeing equal treatment under the law and access to opportunities in public, political, and economic domains. Stem from the idea of natural rights and social contracts, emphasizing fairness, justice, and equality; the rights that protect individuals from discrimination and ensure equal treatment under the law, particularly in social, political, and economic contexts. Unlike civil liberties, which protect freedoms from government interference, civil rights focus on preventing discrimination and promoting equality for all individuals in a society.
natural rights: are fundamental rights that all individuals possess by virtue of their humanity. These rights are considered inherent, universal, and inalienable, existing independently of laws, governments, or cultural contexts. i.e.: right to life, right to liberty, right to property, right to equality, right to pursue happiness.
human rights: the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every individual, regardless of nationality, race, gender, religion, or any other status. They are universal, inalienable, and fundamental to ensuring dignity, equality, and justice.
legal rights: are rights granted and protected by a legal system, such as a constitution, laws, or regulations. They are enforceable through courts and other legal institutions, and their scope varies depending on the jurisdiction.
social contract: is a philosophical concept that posits an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and establish governance in exchange for mutual benefits such as security, order, and protection of rights. It serves as a foundation for understanding the legitimacy of authority and the obligations of citizens.
a just society: is one in which individuals and groups are treated fairly and equitably, with access to opportunities, rights, and resources necessary for their well-being. It ensures that social, political, and economic structures promote fairness, respect for human dignity, and the common good.
Economic Policy Institute: a nonpartisan, nonprofit think tank in Washington, D.C., established in 1986. Its primary mission is to advocate for policies that benefit low- and middle-income workers, promote economic justice, and ensure equitable growth. EPI conducts research, provides policy analysis, and informs the public and policymakers about the economic challenges faced by working people in the United States.
virtue ethics: An ethical tradition that studies those character traits or habits that constitute a good human life, a life worth living. The virtues provide answers to the basic ethical question “What kind of person should I be?” and virtue ethics seeks a systematic account of both the good life and the character traits (virtues) that make up that life.
utilitarianism: An ethical theory that tells us that we can determine the ethical significance of any action by looking to the consequences of that act. Utilitarianism is typically identified with the policy of “maximizing the overall good” or, in a slightly different version, of producing “the greatest good for the greatest number.”
Principle-based ethics (ethics of rights and duties): emphasizes the fact that sometimes the correct path is determined not by its consequences but by certain principles or duties (obligations, commitments, responsibilities.) This approach denies the utilitarian belief that the ends do justify the means. It holds that there are some things that we should, or should not, as a matter of principle, regardless of the consequences. An approach to ethics in which certain fundamental rules of action guide ethical behavior in ways that do not depend on consequences. Among these fundamental rules would be human rights, which are rules that grant each person certain entitlements, or protect each person from the actions of others.
deontological ethics: derived from the Greek word deon (duty), is an ethical framework that emphasizes adherence to moral rules or duties. It asserts that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of their consequences, and that individuals are morally obligated to follow these principles.
dignity of the individual: refers to the inherent worth and value of every human being, which demands respect, recognition, and protection. It is rooted in the idea that all people possess equal moral worth and deserve to be treated with respect, regardless of their circumstances or status.
categorical imperative: a foundational concept in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. It is a universal, unconditional principle that dictates how individuals should act, regardless of personal desires, goals, or circumstances. Kant posited that moral actions are guided by duty & reason, not by consequences or emotions.
maxim: a guiding principle or rule that an individual uses to govern their actions. In Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, a maxim is a subjective principle of volition, or a personal rule that someone follows when deciding how to act. Kant emphasized that a maxim must be evaluated for its moral validity based on whether it can be universalized, that is, applied consistently to everyone without contradiction.
The Golden Rule: an ethical principle that encourages individuals to treat others as they would like to be treated. It is a universal moral maxim that transcends cultures, religions, and philosophies, promoting empathy, reciprocity, and fairness.
moral minimum: the basic standard of ethical behavior that a person or organization is expected to uphold to avoid causing harm or violating the rights of others. It represents the lowest threshold of morality necessary for maintaining trust, fairness, and societal order. While it does not aim for moral excellence, it ensures adherence to fundamental ethical principles.
Immanuel Kant: was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential and controversial figures in modern Western philosophy. He has been called the "father of modern ethics", the "father of modern aesthetics", and for bringing together rationalism and empiricism, the "father of modern philosophy."
rational justification of virtues: Virtues are moral qualities or character traits that guide individuals toward ethical and flourishing lives. A rational justification for virtues involves explaining why cultivating these traits is reasonable and beneficial based on philosophical, practical, and ethical grounds.
ad hominem attack: a logical fallacy in which someone attacks an opponent's character, traits, or personal circumstances rather than addressing the content or merits of their argument. The term "ad hominem" comes from Latin, meaning "to the person," and it undermines rational discourse by shifting focus away from the topic at hand.
psychological egoism: an alleged theory of human motivation that claims that all human actions are selfish and motivated by self-interest.
Social Contract Tradition: a foundational theory in political philosophy that explains the legitimacy of governments and the origin of societal norms through an implicit or explicit agreement among individuals. It posits that an individual’s consent, either directly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to authority in exchange for security, order, and the protection of their remaining rights.
free market view: an economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, emphasizing voluntary exchanges, competition, and individual choice as the primary drivers of economic efficiency and growth. This perspective assumes that when markets are left to operate freely, they allocate resources most efficiently, leading to innovation, wealth creation, and consumer satisfaction.
cooperative social behavior: refers to actions and interactions among individuals or groups aimed at achieving mutual benefit or shared goals. It involves collaboration, coordination, and altruism, fostering relationships and ensuring the survival and well-being of communities. Cooperation is foundational in human societies, enabling advancements in economics, governance, education, and other collective endeavors.
constrained by prohibitions: refers to the limitation of actions or behaviors due to explicit rules, laws, or norms that forbid certain activities. These prohibitions may arise from legal systems, social norms, cultural practices, or ethical guidelines and are designed to maintain order, protect individuals or communities, and uphold moral or societal values.
an invisible hand: was introduced by economist Adam Smith in his seminal work The Wealth of Nations (1776). It describes the unintended social benefits and economic efficiencies that result from individuals pursuing their self-interest in a free market. According to Smith, when individuals make decisions based on their own needs and desires, they inadvertently contribute to the overall good of society, as if guided by an "invisible hand."
rank-order the wants: ranking "wants" typically involves prioritizing them based on specific criteria, such as urgency, importance, impact, or feasibility.
corporate culture: the social environment that establishes corporate expectations, behaviors, and norms.
empirical claim: is a statement or assertion that can be verified or falsified through observation, experimentation, or empirical evidence. Unlike theoretical or normative claims, empirical claims rely on measurable data to determine their validity.
personality: refers to the unique and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and characteristics that distinguish individuals. It shapes how people interact with the world, respond to challenges, and build relationships.
character: refers to the set of moral and ethical traits, habits, and behaviors that define an individual’s integrity, reliability, and sense of responsibility. It represents how one consistently acts and makes decisions based on values and principles, especially in challenging situations.
pragmatic thinker: focuses on practical outcomes and real-world applications of ideas, emphasizing what works in practice rather than adhering strictly to theoretical or ideological positions. Draws from the American Pragmatist tradition (e.g., Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey), which values experience, experiment, and the practical consequences of belief. Outcome-Oriented: Prioritizes results and usefulness. Flexible & Adaptive: Willing to revise ideas based on new evidence. Experimental Approach: Tests solutions in practice. Anti-Absolutist: Rejects rigid dogma, preferring context-sensitive decision-making. Believes truths or ethical guidelines are best judged by their ability to solve problems and improve lived experiences, rather than by abstract principles alone.
consequentialism: an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their outcomes or consequences. According to this view, an action is morally right if it leads to the best possible results, often defined as maximizing overall happiness, well-being, or utility.
uncritical majority rule: refers to a decision-making process where the preferences of the majority dictate outcomes without critical examination, debate, or consideration of minority rights, ethical implications, or long-term consequences.
tyranny of the majority: occurs when the majority in a society uses its numerical or political dominance to impose its will in ways that infringe upon the rights, freedoms, or interests of minority groups. It represents a distortion of democratic principles, where the protection of individual or minority rights is undermined.
majority-rule democracy: is a form of governance where decisions are made based on the preferences of the majority, typically through voting. It emphasizes collective decision-making while allowing for broad participation, with the majority’s choice determining policy or outcomes.
universal access to education: refers to the principle that everyone, regardless of their socioeconomic status, race, gender, location, or any other characteristic, should have equal opportunities to receive quality education at all levels. It emphasizes inclusivity and accessibility as fundamental rights for all individuals.
preference utilitarianism: is a form of utilitarianism that evaluates the morality of actions based on how well they satisfy the preferences or desires of those affected. Unlike classical utilitarianism, which focuses on maximizing happiness or pleasure, preference utilitarianism emphasizes fulfilling individual or collective preferences, as long as those preferences are informed and rational.
ethics of consequences: also known as consequentialism, is an ethical framework that evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes or results. It asserts that actions are morally right or wrong depending on whether their consequences produce the greatest overall good or minimize harm.
ethics of intentions: also known as deontological ethics or Kantian ethics, evaluates the morality of actions based on the motives or intentions behind them, rather than their consequences. It emphasizes doing what is morally right according to principles or duties, regardless of the outcome.
rights and duties are correlative: means that the existence of a right for one person imposes a corresponding duty on others. This relationship underscores the interdependence of rights and duties within ethical, legal, and social frameworks. For every right an individual enjoys, there is a duty upon others to respect, protect, or fulfill that right.
sacrificed interests: refer to situations where the needs, preferences, or rights of certain individuals or groups are deprioritized, overlooked, or actively suppressed to benefit others or achieve a broader goal. These sacrifices often raise ethical questions about fairness, justice, and the balance between individual and collective well-being.
trump suit: a designated suit in a card game that has a higher rank than the other suits. When a trump suit is in play, cards from that suit can "trump" or beat cards of any other suit, regardless of their individual rank.
entitlement: refers to the belief, feeling, or legal recognition that a person, group, or entity deserves certain rights, privileges, or benefits, either by virtue of law, social norms, or personal perception. It can be legitimate, such as legal rights or contractual agreements, or perceived, where the belief is not grounded in objective justification.
disparity: refers to a significant difference or inequality between individuals, groups, or entities in various aspects such as economic status, access to resources, opportunities, or outcomes. Disparities can manifest in numerous forms and can impact social cohesion, economic stability, and overall quality of life within a society.
Chapter 3
PDF PPT CHAPTER 3 pdf.pdfethics (practical, concrete): refers to those opinions, beliefs, and values that guide a person’s life and decisions. This is the practical side of ethics that we experience in everyday life. In this sense, we might speak of the Facebook executives as having no ethics, or we might refer to the Facebook whistleblowers as having high ethical standards. This meaning of ethics can be applied not only to individuals but also to organizations or even entire societies, as when we might conclude that Facebook lacked a strong ethical culture.
ethics (the academic field - an abstraction) identifies an academic field that studies those opinions, beliefs, and values in order to reach conclusions about the reasonableness of those opinions, beliefs, and values. In this sense, one engages in the discipline of ethics by stepping back from the actual everyday decisions that people make to reflect on and evaluate them. Are they the right ones? Why? Should they guide our decisions? Why? What decisions should be made?
social ethics: The area of ethics that is concerned with how we should live together in community with others and how social organizations ought to be structured. Social ethics involves questions of political, economic, civic, and cultural norms aimed at promoting human well-being.
public policy: refers to the principles, actions, and decisions implemented by governments to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the public good. It encompasses laws, regulations, programs, and funding priorities designed to achieve specific objectives.
descriptive ethics: teaching & learning about the academic field of ethics.
normative ethics: ethics deals with norms and standards of appropriate and proper (normal) behavior. Norms establish guidelines or standards for determining what we should do, how we should act, what type of person we should be.
ethos: the cultural expectations/habits/customs/norms/traditions, etc. (based on the environment – family, society, company, organization, etc.) for how we should live, what we conform to. The ethos (of Facebook/Enron, etc.) allowed whatever happened in those companies. We may view our own ethos as our default position on any issue.
norms: shared rules, expectations, or standards that guide and regulate the behavior of individuals within a group, community, or society. They can be formal (written and legally enforced) or informal (unwritten and culturally understood) and serve as a framework for social order and cooperation.
cultural norms: the shared expectations, values, beliefs, and behaviors that govern interactions and practices within a specific cultural group. They serve as informal rules that members of the group follow to maintain social order, cohesion, and identity.
morality: refers to those aspects of ethics involving personal, individual decision making. “How should I live my life?” or “What type of person ought I be?” are taken to be the basic questions of morality. Morality can be distinguished from questions of social justice, which address issues of how communities and social organizations ought to be structured.
judgement: refers to the cognitive process of evaluating information, situations, or actions to make decisions or form opinions. It involves reasoning, analysis, and discernment to arrive at conclusions that are rational, fair, or morally sound.
rational judgement: refers to the process of making decisions based on logic, reason, and evidence, rather than emotions, biases, or arbitrary factors. It involves evaluating information critically and systematically to arrive at the most reasonable conclusion or action.
ethical judgment: the process of evaluating actions, decisions, or policies based on moral principles, values, and the impact on others. It involves determining what is right or wrong, just or unjust, and choosing a course of action aligned with ethical standards.
ethical behavior: refers to actions and decisions that align with moral principles, societal norms, and values. It involves treating others with fairness, respect, and integrity while promoting the well-being of individuals and society.
responsible decision making: is the process of making thoughtful, informed, and ethical choices that consider the potential consequences on oneself, others, and the broader community. It involves balancing short-term and long-term outcomes, adhering to personal and societal values, and taking accountability for actions.
unreasonable decision: is one made without logical justification, sound reasoning, or consideration of evidence and context. Such decisions often defy common sense, ignore potential consequences, or prioritize irrational motives over rational judgment.
irresponsible decision: is one made without considering its consequences, obligations, or the potential harm it may cause to individuals, organizations, or society. Such decisions often neglect accountability, ethical considerations, or due diligence, leading to negative outcomes.
opinion: a belief, viewpoint, or judgment that an individual holds about a particular topic, situation, or idea. Unlike facts, opinions are subjective and often influenced by personal experiences, emotions, and values. They may or may not be based on evidence or logical reasoning.
conformity/submission/obedience to authority: refers to the tendency of individuals to follow orders, directives, or expectations set by those in positions of power or authority, even when such actions conflict with personal beliefs, values, or ethical considerations. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior that can have both positive and negative implications.
obedience: refers to the act of complying with orders, directives, or instructions from an authority figure. It is a fundamental aspect of social behavior, playing a critical role in maintaining order and structure in families, organizations, and societies.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=milgram+experiment+documentary
Can conformity to authority be a source of ethics?
social justice: refers to the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society, ensuring fairness and equality for all individuals. It emphasizes the protection of human rights, the elimination of discrimination, and the pursuit of a just society where every individual can thrive regardless of their background, identity, or circumstances.
contemporary vernacular: refers to the everyday language, expressions, and cultural idioms used by people in a particular place, time, or community. It encompasses informal, colloquial speech and writing that reflects current trends, societal norms, and cultural influences. Unlike formal or academic language, the vernacular evolves dynamically with societal changes and technological advancements.
“walk the talk”: an idiomatic expression that emphasizes the importance of aligning actions with words. It means demonstrating integrity by living up to one’s promises, values, or statements through consistent behavior. In essence, it encourages practicing what one preaches.
skeptic: is someone who questions or doubts accepted beliefs, claims, or statements, seeking evidence or rational justification before accepting them as true. Skepticism is not about rejecting ideas outright but about critically examining them to avoid being misled by assumptions, biases, or misinformation.
dogmatism: a rigid and uncompromising adherence to beliefs, opinions, or doctrines without considering evidence, alternative perspectives, or the possibility of being wrong. It often involves the assertion of ideas as indisputable truths, discouraging critical thinking and open-minded discussion.
relativism: the philosophical view that truth, morality, and values are not absolute but depend on individual, cultural, or situational contexts. It challenges the notion of universal principles by suggesting that what is true or right varies based on perspective, culture, or circumstances.
dilemma of dogmatism and relativism: arises from the tension between two seemingly opposing philosophical approaches to truth, morality, and values: Dogmatism: Asserts that there are absolute truths or principles that are universally valid and unchangeable. Relativism: Argues that truth and morality are subjective, context-dependent, and vary across individuals, cultures, or situations. Both positions have strengths and weaknesses, and their coexistence presents challenges for navigating complex issues in philosophy, ethics, and society.
virtues: Those character traits or behavioral habits that constitute a good human life, a life worth living. The virtues provide answers to the basic ethical question “What kind of person should I be?” Examples might include the character traits of trustworthiness, honesty, friendliness, kindness, modesty, moderation, and courage.
vices: a habit, behavior, or characteristic considered morally wrong, harmful, or detrimental to oneself or others. It is often the opposite of virtue and reflects moral weaknesses, poor judgment, or a lack of ethical standards; include describing someone as greedy, selfish, arrogant, condescending, deceitful, a hypocrite.
separation thesis: The separation thesis asserts that ordinary ethical standards should be kept separate from, and not be used to judge, business decisions because business has its own standards of good and bad.
legal compliance: refers to the adherence of individuals, organizations, and entities to laws, regulations, standards, and ethical guidelines relevant to their operations or activities. It is a fundamental requirement for ensuring lawful behavior, maintaining order, and avoiding legal consequences.
ambiguity: refers to the presence of multiple interpretations, meanings, or outcomes, often resulting in uncertainty or confusion. It can arise in language, actions, situations, or ideas, where clarity is lacking, or the intended meaning is unclear.
Americans with Disabilities Act: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or ADA is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability.
Enron: An energy company based in Houston, Texas, that Fortune magazine named America’s most innovative company for six consecutive years before it was discovered to have been involved in one of the largest instances of accounting fraud in world history. In 2001, with over 21,000 employees, it filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history and disclosed a scandal that resulted in the loss of millions of dollars, thousands of jobs, the downfall of Big Five accounting firm Arthur Andersen LLP, at least one suicide, and several trials and convictions, among other consequences.
complicit: refers to being involved in or associated with wrongdoing, often by enabling, supporting, or passively allowing unethical or illegal actions to occur. Complicity implies a degree of responsibility, even if the individual or entity does not directly perpetrate the harmful act.
fraudulent banking accounts: accounts created or used with the intent to deceive, commit financial fraud, or engage in other illicit activities. These accounts may be established with false information or manipulated for illegal purposes, undermining the integrity of the financial system.
individual freedom: also known as personal liberty, refers to the ability of individuals to act, think, and make choices independently, without undue interference or restriction by others, particularly by external authorities such as governments, organizations, or societal norms. It is a foundational concept in philosophy, politics, and ethics.
ethical relativism: An important perspective within the philosophical study of ethics that holds that ethical values and judgments are ultimately dependent on, or relative to, one’s culture, society, or personal feelings. Relativism therefore denies that we can make rational or objective ethical judgments.
cultural relativism: A factual claim about cultures holding that, in fact, the values and ethos of cultures differ. To be distinguished from ethical relativism which holds, often on the basis of cultural relativism, that there is no way to make cross-cultural ethical judgments.
value relativism: the philosophical view that moral values, cultural norms, or personal beliefs are not absolute but rather relative to the specific individual, culture, or context in which they arise. It asserts that no single standard of morality or value system is universally applicable, and what is considered "right" or "wrong" depends on the perspective of the observer or the societal framework.
common rational basis: refers to a shared foundation of reasoning or principles that different individuals, groups, or systems can agree upon when addressing issues, making decisions, or resolving disputes. It serves as a neutral and universally accessible framework for understanding and evaluating arguments or actions.
elucidate: to make something clear, explain, or shed light on a subject that might be complex or difficult to understand. The term derives from the Latin word elucidare, which means "to make clear" or "to illuminate."
quid pro quo: (Latin: "something for something") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; "a favor for a favor". Phrases with similar meanings include: "give and take", "tit for tat", "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours", "this for that," and "one hand washes the other".
Harvey Weinstein: In October 2017, The New York Times and The New Yorker reported that dozens of women had accused the American film producer Harvey Weinstein of rape, sexual assault and sexual abuse over a period of at least 30 years.
#MeToo movement: is a social movement and awareness campaign against sexual abuse, sexual harassment and rape culture, in which women publicize their experiences of sexual abuse or sexual harassment.
workplace discrimination: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
inequality of power: refers to the uneven distribution of authority, influence, and control among individuals, groups, or institutions within a society. This imbalance affects decision-making, access to resources, opportunities, and the ability to shape societal norms or policies. Power inequality often underpins broader social, economic, and political disparities.
self-respect: refers to an individual's recognition of their inherent worth, dignity, and value. It involves maintaining a sense of pride, confidence, and ethical alignment in one’s actions, decisions, and personal identity. Self-respect is closely tied to self-esteem but emphasizes moral and ethical congruence in one’s behavior.
integrity: refers to the quality of being honest, ethical, and consistent in one's values, actions, and principles. It involves doing the right thing even when it is difficult or when no one is watching. Integrity is foundational to trust, accountability, and ethical behavior in personal, professional, and societal contexts.
personal autonomy: refers to an individual's capacity to make free, informed, and independent decisions about their life and actions. It embodies the idea of self-governance and the ability to act according to one's values, beliefs, and desires without undue external influence or coercion.
agency: refers to the capacity of individuals or entities to make choices, take actions, and exert influence over their circumstances and environment. It encompasses autonomy, intentionality, and the ability to pursue goals based on personal or collective values.
social harm: refers to actions, behaviors, or conditions that negatively affect the well-being, stability, and cohesion of society. It encompasses a broad range of harms, from physical violence to systemic inequalities, that undermine the ability of individuals or groups to thrive within their communities.
sexual harassment: refers to unwanted and unwelcome behavior of a sexual nature that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment. It undermines the dignity, autonomy, and equality of individuals, making it both a moral and legal violation.
coercion: refers to the practice of compelling someone to act in a certain way or make a particular decision through threats, force, or manipulation. It undermines an individual's autonomy by imposing external pressure that limits their ability to make free and voluntary choices.
moral imagination: the ability to envision and evaluate potential responses to ethical dilemmas by creatively considering the perspectives, values, and needs of others. It allows individuals to transcend conventional thinking and explore innovative, empathetic, and ethically sound solutions to complex problems.
public scrutiny: refers to the close examination and critical observation of individuals, organizations, policies, or actions by the public. It plays a crucial role in promoting accountability, transparency, and ethical behavior in various domains such as politics, business, and social life.
Section 230: In the United States, Section 230 is a section of the Communications Act of 1934 that was enacted as part of the Communications Decency Act of 1996, which is Title V of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and generally provides immunity for online computer services with respect to third-party content generated by its users.
informed consent: a process in which an individual voluntarily agrees to participate in a procedure, treatment, or activity after being fully informed of its purpose, potential risks, benefits, and alternatives. It is a cornerstone of ethical practice in medicine, research, and other fields where decisions affect a person's body, rights, or well-being.
gatekeeper: In business ethics, gatekeepers are professionals or entities responsible for overseeing and ensuring the integrity of corporate conduct. They play a crucial role in maintaining transparency, accountability, and ethical standards within organizations and the broader market. Roles and Responsibilities: Auditors: Examine financial statements to ensure accuracy and compliance with accounting standards, thereby fostering trust among investors and stakeholders. Lawyers: Advise corporations on legal obligations and ethical considerations, ensuring that business practices adhere to laws and regulations. Financial Analysts: Provide assessments of a company's financial health, influencing investment decisions and market perceptions. Regulatory Bodies: Enforce laws and regulations to maintain fair practices and protect public interests. Gatekeepers serve as the first line of defense against corporate misconduct. Their ethical responsibility extends beyond mere compliance; they are expected to act in the public interest, preventing fraud and ensuring that businesses operate transparently and honestly.
Attorney Client Privilege: The attorney-client privilege is one of the oldest and most respected privileges. It prevents a lawyer from being compelled to testify against his/her client. The purpose underlying this privilege is to ensure that clients receive accurate and competent legal advice by encouraging full disclosure to their lawyer without fear that the information will be revealed to others.
misinformation: false or misleading information.
disinformation: which is false or misleading information that is intentionally promoted.
civil liberties: fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to individuals, typically protected by law or constitutional provisions, that ensure personal autonomy and limit government power. These liberties allow individuals to act freely without unwarranted interference, promoting dignity, fairness, and equality within society. Include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, press, and protection from arbitrary government actions. Rooted in Enlightenment principles and natural rights theories, prominently in the works of Locke, Rousseau, and Mill.
civil rights: are legal protections that ensure individuals' equality and freedom from discrimination in various spheres of life, such as race, gender, religion, and disability. Focus on guaranteeing equal treatment under the law and access to opportunities in public, political, and economic domains. Stem from the idea of natural rights and social contracts, emphasizing fairness, justice, and equality; the rights that protect individuals from discrimination and ensure equal treatment under the law, particularly in social, political, and economic contexts. Unlike civil liberties, which protect freedoms from government interference, civil rights focus on preventing discrimination and promoting equality for all individuals in a society.
civic virtue: The cultivation of habits, attitudes, and behaviors that promote the common good and active participation in public life. Involves responsibility, integrity, and engagement in activities that benefit the community and society as a whole. Originates in classical philosophy, particularly in the works of Aristotle and Cicero, emphasizing the role of citizens in supporting a just society.
natural rights: are fundamental rights that all individuals possess by virtue of their humanity. These rights are considered inherent, universal, and inalienable, existing independently of laws, governments, or cultural contexts. i.e.: right to life, right to liberty, right to property, right to equality, right to pursue happiness.
human rights: the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every individual, regardless of nationality, race, gender, religion, or any other status. They are universal, inalienable, and fundamental to ensuring dignity, equality, and justice.
legal rights: are rights granted and protected by a legal system, such as a constitution, laws, or regulations. They are enforceable through courts and other legal institutions, and their scope varies depending on the jurisdiction.
social contract: is a philosophical concept that posits an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and establish governance in exchange for mutual benefits such as security, order, and protection of rights. It serves as a foundation for understanding the legitimacy of authority and the obligations of citizens.
a just society: is one in which individuals and groups are treated fairly and equitably, with access to opportunities, rights, and resources necessary for their well-being. It ensures that social, political, and economic structures promote fairness, respect for human dignity, and the common good.
Economic Policy Institute: a nonpartisan, nonprofit think tank in Washington, D.C., established in 1986. Its primary mission is to advocate for policies that benefit low- and middle-income workers, promote economic justice, and ensure equitable growth. EPI conducts research, provides policy analysis, and informs the public and policymakers about the economic challenges faced by working people in the United States.
virtue ethics: An ethical tradition that studies those character traits or habits that constitute a good human life, a life worth living. The virtues provide answers to the basic ethical question “What kind of person should I be?” and virtue ethics seeks a systematic account of both the good life and the character traits (virtues) that make up that life.
utilitarianism: An ethical theory that tells us that we can determine the ethical significance of any action by looking to the consequences of that act. Utilitarianism is typically identified with the policy of “maximizing the overall good” or, in a slightly different version, of producing “the greatest good for the greatest number.”
Principle-based ethics (ethics of rights and duties): emphasizes the fact that sometimes the correct path is determined not by its consequences but by certain principles or duties (obligations, commitments, responsibilities.) This approach denies the utilitarian belief that the ends do justify the means. It holds that there are some things that we should, or should not, as a matter of principle, regardless of the consequences. An approach to ethics in which certain fundamental rules of action guide ethical behavior in ways that do not depend on consequences. Among these fundamental rules would be human rights, which are rules that grant each person certain entitlements, or protect each person from the actions of others.
deontological ethics: derived from the Greek word deon (duty), is an ethical framework that emphasizes adherence to moral rules or duties. It asserts that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of their consequences, and that individuals are morally obligated to follow these principles.
dignity of the individual: refers to the inherent worth and value of every human being, which demands respect, recognition, and protection. It is rooted in the idea that all people possess equal moral worth and deserve to be treated with respect, regardless of their circumstances or status.
categorical imperative: a foundational concept in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. It is a universal, unconditional principle that dictates how individuals should act, regardless of personal desires, goals, or circumstances. Kant posited that moral actions are guided by duty & reason, not by consequences or emotions. While it offers consistency and a clear moral foundation, its rigidity and lack of consideration for outcomes can make its application challenging in complex scenarios.
maxim: a guiding principle or rule that an individual uses to govern their actions. In Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, a maxim is a subjective principle of volition, or a personal rule that someone follows when deciding how to act. Kant emphasized that a maxim must be evaluated for its moral validity based on whether it can be universalized, that is, applied consistently to everyone without contradiction.
The Golden Rule: an ethical principle that encourages individuals to treat others as they would like to be treated. It is a universal moral maxim that transcends cultures, religions, and philosophies, promoting empathy, reciprocity, and fairness.
moral minimum: the basic standard of ethical behavior that a person or organization is expected to uphold to avoid causing harm or violating the rights of others. It represents the lowest threshold of morality necessary for maintaining trust, fairness, and societal order. While it does not aim for moral excellence, it ensures adherence to fundamental ethical principles.
Immanuel Kant: was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential and controversial figures in modern Western philosophy. He has been called the "father of modern ethics", the "father of modern aesthetics", and for bringing together rationalism and empiricism, the "father of modern philosophy."
rational justification of virtues: Virtues are moral qualities or character traits that guide individuals toward ethical and flourishing lives. A rational justification for virtues involves explaining why cultivating these traits is reasonable and beneficial based on philosophical, practical, and ethical grounds.
ad hominem attack: a logical fallacy in which someone attacks an opponent's character, traits, or personal circumstances rather than addressing the content or merits of their argument. The term "ad hominem" comes from Latin, meaning "to the person," and it undermines rational discourse by shifting focus away from the topic at hand.
psychological egoism: an alleged theory of human motivation that claims that all human actions are selfish and motivated by self-interest. It is the view that humans are always motivated by self-interest and selfishness, even in what seem to be acts of altruism. It claims that, when people choose to help others, they do so ultimately because of the personal benefits that they themselves expect to obtain, directly or indirectly, from doing so.
Social Contract Tradition: a foundational theory in political philosophy that explains the legitimacy of governments and the origin of societal norms through an implicit or explicit agreement among individuals. It posits that an individual’s consent, either directly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to authority in exchange for security, order, and the protection of their remaining rights.
free market view: an economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the economy, emphasizing voluntary exchanges, competition, and individual choice as the primary drivers of economic efficiency and growth. This perspective assumes that when markets are left to operate freely, they allocate resources most efficiently, leading to innovation, wealth creation, and consumer satisfaction.
cooperative social behavior: refers to actions and interactions among individuals or groups aimed at achieving mutual benefit or shared goals. It involves collaboration, coordination, and altruism, fostering relationships and ensuring the survival and well-being of communities. Cooperation is foundational in human societies, enabling advancements in economics, governance, education, and other collective endeavors.
constrained by prohibitions: refers to the limitation of actions or behaviors due to explicit rules, laws, or norms that forbid certain activities. These prohibitions may arise from legal systems, social norms, cultural practices, or ethical guidelines and are designed to maintain order, protect individuals or communities, and uphold moral or societal values.
an invisible hand: was introduced by economist Adam Smith in his seminal work The Wealth of Nations (1776). It describes the unintended social benefits and economic efficiencies that result from individuals pursuing their self-interest in a free market. According to Smith, when individuals make decisions based on their own needs and desires, they inadvertently contribute to the overall good of society, as if guided by an "invisible hand."
rank-order the wants: ranking "wants" typically involves prioritizing them based on specific criteria, such as urgency, importance, impact, or feasibility.
corporate culture: the social environment that establishes corporate expectations, behaviors, and norms.
empirical claim: is a statement or assertion that can be verified or falsified through observation, experimentation, or empirical evidence. Unlike theoretical or normative claims, empirical claims rely on measurable data to determine their validity.
personality: refers to the unique and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and characteristics that distinguish individuals. It shapes how people interact with the world, respond to challenges, and build relationships.
character: refers to the set of moral and ethical traits, habits, and behaviors that define an individual’s integrity, reliability, and sense of responsibility. It represents how one consistently acts and makes decisions based on values and principles, especially in challenging situations.
pragmatic thinker: focuses on practical outcomes and real-world applications of ideas, emphasizing what works in practice rather than adhering strictly to theoretical or ideological positions. Draws from the American Pragmatist tradition (e.g., Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey), which values experience, experiment, and the practical consequences of belief. Outcome-Oriented: Prioritizes results and usefulness. Flexible & Adaptive: Willing to revise ideas based on new evidence. Experimental Approach: Tests solutions in practice. Anti-Absolutist: Rejects rigid dogma, preferring context-sensitive decision-making. Believes truths or ethical guidelines are best judged by their ability to solve problems and improve lived experiences, rather than by abstract principles alone.
consequentialism: an ethical theory that judges the morality of actions based on their outcomes or consequences. According to this view, an action is morally right if it leads to the best possible results, often defined as maximizing overall happiness, well-being, or utility.
uncritical majority rule: refers to a decision-making process where the preferences of the majority dictate outcomes without critical examination, debate, or consideration of minority rights, ethical implications, or long-term consequences.
tyranny of the majority: occurs when the majority in a society uses its numerical or political dominance to impose its will in ways that infringe upon the rights, freedoms, or interests of minority groups. It represents a distortion of democratic principles, where the protection of individual or minority rights is undermined.
majority-rule democracy: is a form of governance where decisions are made based on the preferences of the majority, typically through voting. It emphasizes collective decision-making while allowing for broad participation, with the majority’s choice determining policy or outcomes.
universal access to education: refers to the principle that everyone, regardless of their socioeconomic status, race, gender, location, or any other characteristic, should have equal opportunities to receive quality education at all levels. It emphasizes inclusivity and accessibility as fundamental rights for all individuals.
preference utilitarianism: is a form of utilitarianism that evaluates the morality of actions based on how well they satisfy the preferences or desires of those affected. Unlike classical utilitarianism, which focuses on maximizing happiness or pleasure, preference utilitarianism emphasizes fulfilling individual or collective preferences, as long as those preferences are informed and rational.
ethics of consequences: also known as consequentialism, is an ethical framework that evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes or results. It asserts that actions are morally right or wrong depending on whether their consequences produce the greatest overall good or minimize harm.
ethics of intentions: also known as deontological ethics or Kantian ethics, evaluates the morality of actions based on the motives or intentions behind them, rather than their consequences. It emphasizes doing what is morally right according to principles or duties, regardless of the outcome.
rights and duties are correlative: means that the existence of a right for one person imposes a corresponding duty on others. This relationship underscores the interdependence of rights and duties within ethical, legal, and social frameworks. For every right an individual enjoys, there is a duty upon others to respect, protect, or fulfill that right.
sacrificed interests: refer to situations where the needs, preferences, or rights of certain individuals or groups are deprioritized, overlooked, or actively suppressed to benefit others or achieve a broader goal. These sacrifices often raise ethical questions about fairness, justice, and the balance between individual and collective well-being.
trump suit: a designated suit in a card game that has a higher rank than the other suits. When a trump suit is in play, cards from that suit can "trump" or beat cards of any other suit, regardless of their individual rank.
entitlement: refers to the belief, feeling, or legal recognition that a person, group, or entity deserves certain rights, privileges, or benefits, either by virtue of law, social norms, or personal perception. It can be legitimate, such as legal rights or contractual agreements, or perceived, where the belief is not grounded in objective justification.
disparity: refers to a significant difference or inequality between individuals, groups, or entities in various aspects such as economic status, access to resources, opportunities, or outcomes. Disparities can manifest in numerous forms and can impact social cohesion, economic stability, and overall quality of life within a society.
content moderation: involves making decisions about what content to allow, remove, or restrict on digital platforms. Human moderation: Trained staff reviewing content manually; Automated moderation: AI/ML systems detecting problematic content; Hybrid systems: Combining human judgment with automated tools; Community moderation: Users reporting violations and sometimes voting on content Common Categories Moderated: Hate speech and harassment, Adult content and nudity, Violence and gore, Misinformation and disinformation, Spam and scams, Copyright violations, Self-harm content Major Challenges: Scale: Platforms deal with millions of posts daily; Context: Understanding cultural nuances and intent; Consistency: Applying rules fairly across diverse content; Speed: Balancing quick response with accuracy Mental health: Supporting moderators who view disturbing content; Transparency: Explaining decisions to users
Bias: Ensuring fair treatment across demographics
legal immunity: 1. The "26 words that created the internet" (Section 230(c)(1)): "No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." This means: Platforms aren't legally liable for user-generated content: they can't be sued for content their user’s post; they're protected from most civil lawsuits about third-party content
2. The "Good Samaritan" provision (Section 230(c)(2)): Platforms have immunity for "good faith" actions to restrict access to objectionable material, even if that content is constitutionally protected.
Key aspects: Platforms can moderate content without losing immunity; they can be strict or lenient in their moderation; they maintain immunity even if they miss harmful content; the protection doesn't extend to federal criminal law, intellectual property law, or certain other categories Exceptions to immunity: Content that violates federal criminal law; intellectual property violations; communications privacy law violations; sex trafficking content (FOSTA-SESTA amendment)
corporate social responsibility (CSR): The responsibilities that businesses have to the societies within which they operate. In various contexts, it may also refer to the voluntary actions that companies undertake to address economic, social, and environmental impacts of their business operations and the concerns of their principal stakeholders. Models of CSR describe how a business should identify its stakeholder groups and incorporate stakeholder needs and values within its strategic and operational decision-making process.
shareholder primacy: A CSR theory and model for management decision making which identifies the responsibility to serve the financial interests of shareholders or stockholders as the primary responsibility for business.
prisoners’ dilemma: A fundamental problem in game theory that demonstrates why two rational individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interest to do so. The dilemma is typically illustrated through a scenario in which two prisoners are separately interrogated and given the choice to either betray the other by testifying that the other committed the crime, or to remain silent. If both prisoners betray each other, they each serve a longer sentence. If one betrays while the other remains silent, the betrayer is freed and the silent prisoner receives the longest sentence. If both remain silent, they receive a shorter sentence. The dilemma highlights the conflict between individual rationality and collective rationality.
market failures: refers to a situation where the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. This means that the outcome of market interactions doesn't maximize overall social welfare or benefit.
individual rationality: in economics, refers to the assumption that individuals make choices that they believe will maximize their own self-interest or utility. Self-Interest: Individuals primarily act to benefit themselves, whether it's maximizing wealth, happiness, or other personal goals. Maximizing Behavior: Individuals strive to make choices that yield the best possible outcome for themselves, given their available options and constraints. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Rational individuals weigh the potential costs and benefits of different choices and select the option that they believe will provide the greatest net benefit. Consistent Preferences: Individuals have stable and consistent preferences. If they prefer option A to option B, they will consistently choose option A over option B in similar situations.
social perspective: is a way of looking at the world that emphasizes the interconnectedness of social structures, institutions, and cultural norms. Focus on Society: It shifts the focus from individual behavior to broader social patterns and how they influence individual actions. Recognizing Social Forces: It highlights how factors like social class, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and culture shape our experiences, beliefs, and behaviors. Seeing the Bigger Picture: It encourages us to step back from our individual perspectives and consider how larger social forces impact our lives and the lives of others. Key Concepts: Social Structures: These are the established patterns of relationships and behaviors in a society. Examples include the family, education system, and the economy. Social Institutions: These are organized sets of rules and norms that govern behavior in specific areas of life. Examples include religion, government, and the legal system. Culture: This refers to the shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors of a particular group of people.
upshot: the final result or outcome of a particular situation or course of action.
unconditioned ethical directive: is a moral principle or rule that applies universally and without exception.
Key Characteristics: Absolute: It holds true regardless of the specific circumstances, consequences, or personal desires.
Universal: It applies equally to all individuals and situations. Non-negotiable: There are no exceptions or justifications for violating an unconditioned ethical directive. Examples: "Do not kill." This is often considered an unconditioned ethical directive, meaning that intentionally taking a human life is always wrong, regardless of the circumstances.
"Do not lie." This principle suggests that honesty is always the best policy, even if it might have negative consequences. It provides a rigid framework for moral decision-making, emphasizing absolute rules and universal obligations.
shadow prices: the estimated monetary value of something that is not typically bought or sold in the market. It's essentially an artificial price assigned to an intangible or non-market good or service. Purpose: Shadow pricing helps in: Cost-Benefit Analysis: Evaluating projects or investments by assigning monetary values to intangible factors like environmental impacts, social benefits, or time saved. Decision-Making: Making informed decisions when market prices are unavailable or inaccurate. Examples: Environmental Damage: Estimating the cost of pollution or resource depletion. Time Savings: Calculating the value of time saved by commuters due to a new highway. Social Benefits: Assigning a monetary value to the benefits of education or healthcare.
ad hoc attempts: Improvised: They are created or done specifically for an immediate need or purpose, without prior planning or a systematic approach. Temporary: They are not intended to be long-term solutions or part of a larger, more organized plan. Unsystematic: They may lack a clear structure, methodology, or consistent approach.
first-generation problem: we learn about market failures and thereby prevent harm in the future only by
sacrificing the first generation as a means for gaining this information.
government regulations establishing social standards for business: examples - Labor Laws: Minimum Wage: Sets a floor for hourly wages, ensuring workers receive a basic level of income. Overtime Pay: Mandates extra pay for work exceeding a certain number of hours per week, preventing excessive exploitation. Child Labor Laws: Prohibit the employment of children in hazardous occupations and limit their working hours to protect their health and education. Equal Employment Opportunity Laws: Prohibit discrimination in hiring, promotion, and other employment practices based on factors like race, gender, religion, and disability. (e.g., Civil Rights Act of 1964)
Consumer Protection: Product Safety Standards: Set rules for the safety of consumer products to prevent injuries and protect public health (e.g., regulations by the Consumer Product Safety Commission). Truth in Advertising: Prohibits deceptive or misleading advertising practices to protect consumers from being misled about product quality or benefits. Financial Regulations: Aim to protect consumers from fraud and unfair practices in areas like banking, lending, and investments. Environmental Protection: Pollution Control: Regulates air and water pollution to protect public health and the environment. Resource Conservation: Promotes the sustainable use of natural resources through regulations on waste disposal, recycling, and resource extraction. Data Privacy: Data Protection Laws: Protect consumer data from unauthorized access and use, giving individuals more control over their personal information. (e.g., GDPR in Europe, CCPA in California).
inappropriate influence: is influence aimed not at optimizing the overall good (the goal, after all, of markets) but at protecting the interests of business.
CAFÉ standards: https://www.transportation.gov/mission/sustainability/corporate-average-fuel-economy-cafe-standards
disingenuous: means not candid or sincere; typically, by pretending to know less about something than one really does.
How do businesses influence public opinion? Advertising and Marketing: Subliminal Messaging: Techniques like subtle product placement in movies or TV shows can subtly influence consumer preferences. Targeted Advertising: Using data to tailor ads to specific demographics can shape opinions and desires. Emotional Appeals: Ads often evoke emotions like fear, joy, or nostalgia to create a positive association with a brand or product.
Public Relations and Media Relations: Press Releases: Issuing statements to the media to shape public perception of company actions or industry issues. Lobbying: Influencing government policy through direct contact with lawmakers.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Campaigns: Highlighting charitable work or environmental initiatives to build a positive public image. Social Media: Direct Engagement: Interacting with customers on social media platforms to address concerns and build relationships. Influencer Marketing: Partnering with social media influencers to promote products and reach target audiences. Social Media Campaigns: Launching campaigns to generate buzz and influence public discourse on relevant topics. Sponsorship and Events: Sponsoring Events: Associating with popular events or causes to enhance brand image and reach a wider audience. Community Involvement: Supporting local communities through charitable donations or volunteer programs. Economic Power: Job Creation: Creating jobs can positively impact local economies and influence public opinion about a company. Innovation: Developing new technologies or products can shape consumer behavior and societal norms.
affluenza: a term used to describe the unhealthy and unwelcome psychological and social effects of affluence, often regarded as a widespread societal problem; highlights the potential downsides of excessive materialism and the pursuit of wealth at the expense of other important aspects of human life. Chronic Dissatisfaction, Loss of Meaning and Purpose, Increased Stress and Anxiety, Social Isolation, Materialism, Consumerism.
vacuous: empty of meaning or intellectual content.
legal compliance: refers to the process of adhering to all applicable laws, regulations, and internal policies governing an organization's activities.
anti-trust action: refers to legal measures taken by governments to prevent or break up monopolies and promote competition in the marketplace. Goal: To ensure fair competition, protect consumers from anti-competitive practices, and prevent the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few companies. Methods: Lawsuits: Government agencies (like the U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission) can file lawsuits against companies engaging in anti-competitive behavior. Merger Reviews: Government agencies review proposed mergers and acquisitions to determine if they would substantially lessen competition. Divestiture Orders: Courts can order companies to divest (sell) certain assets or subsidiaries to increase competition. Consent Decrees: Companies may agree to settle antitrust lawsuits by entering into consent decrees, which outline specific actions they will take to remedy anti-competitive behavior. Examples of Anti-Competitive Behavior: Monopolies: When a single company dominates a market, it can control prices, limit output, and stifle innovation. Cartels: Agreements among competitors to fix prices, restrict output, or allocate markets. Predatory Pricing: Setting prices below cost to drive competitors out of business. Exclusive Dealing: Forcing distributors or retailers to only sell the products of one company.
rule model of law: a fundamental principle that governs how a society should be structured and how its laws should be created and enforced. Core Principles: Accountability: All individuals, including government officials, are accountable to the law. No one is above the law. Just Law: Laws should be clear, publicized, stable, and applied evenly. They should be fair and protect fundamental rights. Open Government: The processes by which laws are created, administered, and enforced should be accessible, fair, and efficient. Accessible and Impartial Justice: Everyone should have access to justice, and the justice system should be impartial and fair. Key Features: Predictability: The rule of law provides a predictable framework for individuals and businesses to operate within. Equality: All individuals are treated equally before the law, regardless of their social status, wealth, or political connections. Limited Government: The rule of law limits the power of government and prevents arbitrary use of authority. Protection of Rights: It safeguards fundamental rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial.
Importance: Stability and Order: The rule of law is essential for maintaining social order and stability within a society.
Economic Growth: It fosters economic growth by creating a predictable and stable environment for businesses to thrive. Human Rights: It protects the fundamental rights and freedoms of all individuals. Good Governance: It is a cornerstone of good governance and a just society.
civil law: the body of law that governs disputes between private individuals or entities. Focus: Primarily concerned with private rights and remedies. Disputes: Deals with issues like: Contracts: Breach of contract, formation of contracts, etc. Torts: Negligence, defamation, product liability, etc. Property: Ownership, possession, and use of real and personal property. Family Law: Marriage, divorce, child custody, etc. Business Law: Business contracts, corporate law, etc.
precedent: refers to a prior legal decision that serves as a rule or example for deciding subsequent cases with similar issues.
push the envelope of legality: means to test the limits of what is legally permissible. Intention: It often involves deliberately engaging in actions or behaviors that are not explicitly prohibited by law but may be considered ethically questionable or borderline illegal. Risk: There's an inherent risk involved, as the actions may be deemed illegal after the fact, leading to legal consequences. Examples: Businesses: May "push the envelope" of tax laws by aggressively seeking deductions or exploiting loopholes. Individuals: Might "push the envelope" of free speech by making provocative statements that may be close to defamation or hate speech. Government: May "push the envelope" of surveillance powers by collecting data that may be considered an invasion of privacy.
off-book partnerships: generally, refer to business arrangements that are not formally documented or recorded in the official financial records of the parties involved. Informal Agreements: These partnerships might involve verbal agreements, handshakes, or informal understandings between individuals or entities. Undeclared Transactions: They could involve transactions or exchanges of value that are not officially reported for tax or accounting purposes. Hidden Relationships: These partnerships might be intentionally kept secret, potentially for reasons related to tax evasion, fraud, or other illicit activities.
false picture: can be used metaphorically to describe a situation or idea that is inaccurate or misleading.
staunchest defenders: refers to the most loyal and unwavering supporters of a particular person, cause, or idea.
hard and fast distinction: refers to a clear, absolute, and inflexible difference between two things. No Grey Areas: It implies that there is no room for ambiguity, exceptions, or shades of grey. Rigid Boundaries: The distinction is firmly established and cannot be easily blurred or challenged.
prima facie: a Latin term that translates to "at first sight" or "on the face of it." Initial Impression: It refers to something that appears to be true or valid based on initial observation or evidence. Presumption: It establishes a presumption, but this presumption can be rebutted or challenged with further evidence or argument. Examples:
Law: In some legal cases, a plaintiff might establish a prima facie case by presenting sufficient evidence to support their claim, shifting the burden of proof to the defendant. Everyday Use: "Prima facie, the idea seems reasonable."
"The evidence presented prima facie suggests that the defendant is guilty." Key Points: Not Conclusive: A prima facie case or argument is not necessarily conclusive. Subject to Challenge: It can be challenged or overturned with further evidence or argument.
libertarian justification: for a particular action or policy generally refers to an argument that: Prioritizes Individual Liberty: The justification emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and autonomy above all else.
Minimizes Government Intervention: It argues that government intervention in the lives of individuals should be minimized as much as possible. Emphasizes Voluntary Action: It suggests that individuals should be free to make their own choices and engage in voluntary interactions without government interference. Rejects Coercion: It opposes the use of force or coercion by the government, even for what may be considered beneficial purposes. Here's an example:
A libertarian justification for legalizing drugs might argue that individuals should have the freedom to make their own choices about what substances they consume, and that government prohibition infringes upon their personal liberty.
Key Concepts: Individual Rights: Libertarian justifications often center on the concept of individual rights, particularly the right to life, liberty, and property. Free Markets: Libertarians generally support free markets and limited government intervention in the economy. Self-Ownership: The idea that individuals have the right to own themselves and their labor.
property rights: are the theoretical and legal ownership of resources and how they can be used. Core Concept: Property rights define who has the exclusive authority to determine how a resource is used. This includes the right to:
Use: Utilize the property for personal use or to generate income. Exclude: Prevent others from using or interfering with the property. Transfer: Sell, rent, or give away the property. Enforce: Legally protect one's property rights against infringement.
initially plausible account of causality: holds that the cause of some harm is that without which the harm would
not have occurred.
sine qua non (that without which): a Latin phrase that translates to "without which not." Meaning: It signifies an indispensable condition or something absolutely essential for something else to exist or occur. In simpler terms: It's like saying something is an "absolute must" or "completely necessary." Example: "Water is the sine qua non for life on Earth."
compliance officer: is an employee of a company responsible for ensuring that the firm is in compliance with its outside regulatory and legal requirements as well as internal policies and bylaws.
moral minimum: the basic standard of ethical behavior that a person or organization is expected to uphold to avoid causing harm or violating the rights of others. It represents the lowest threshold of morality necessary for maintaining trust, fairness, and societal order. While it does not aim for moral excellence, it ensures adherence to fundamental ethical principles.
minimal legal and/or moral constraints: describes a situation where there are few or limited restrictions on an individual or entity's actions, either from the perspective of the law or ethical considerations. Legal Constraints:
Limited Laws: Few laws or regulations exist to govern a particular area, allowing for greater freedom of action.
Weak Enforcement: Existing laws may be poorly enforced, allowing for violations to go unpunished. Legal Loopholes: Individuals or entities may exploit loopholes in the law to circumvent regulations. Moral Constraints: Weak Ethical Standards: A lack of strong ethical guidelines or a disregard for existing moral principles. Focus on Self-Interest: Prioritizing personal gain or profit above ethical considerations. Lack of Scrutiny: Limited public or social pressure to act ethically. Potential Implications: Increased Risk: Situations with minimal legal and moral constraints can lead to increased risk of unethical behavior, exploitation, and harm. Unfair Advantages: Some individuals or entities may gain unfair advantages by exploiting the lack of constraints. Social and Environmental Damage: Unchecked actions can have negative consequences for society and the environment. Examples: Unregulated Markets: Markets with minimal government regulation can lead to exploitation of consumers, environmental damage, and unfair competition. Lack of Ethical Oversight: In some industries, a lack of ethical oversight can lead to corruption, bribery, and other unethical practices.
stakeholder model of CSR: A model of corporate social responsibility that holds that business managers have ethical responsibilities to a range of stakeholders that go beyond a narrow "shareholder primacy" view that the primary or only responsibility of managers is to stockholders. In a general sense, a stakeholder is anyone who can be affected by decisions made within a business. More specifically, stakeholders are considered to be those people who are necessary for the functioning of a business.
due consideration: implies that something has been carefully and thoughtfully examined or evaluated.
telling defect: easily identifiable flaws that should be addressed promptly to improve the user experience and maintain a professional image for the software.
benefit corporations: A legal model of incorporation in which the purpose of the corporate entity is to pursue some socially beneficial objective. Benefit corporations, or "B-Corps," continue as for-profit businesses, but profit is understood as a by-product of achieving its socially beneficial goals and is not the primary goal of the firm.
social entrepreneurship: the process of designing and implementing innovative solutions to social, cultural, or environmental problems.
B-Corp: is a for-profit company certified by B Lab, a non-profit organization, to meet rigorous standards of social and environmental performance, accountability, and transparency.
B-Labs: a global non-profit organization that certifies for-profit companies like B Corporations (or B Corps). Here's a breakdown of what B Lab does: Develops Standards: B Lab creates and maintains rigorous standards for social and environmental performance, accountability, and transparency for businesses. Conducts Assessments: They administer the B Impact Assessment, a comprehensive assessment that evaluates a company's impact on its workers, customers, community, environment, and governance. Certifies B Corps: Companies that meet B Lab's standards and achieve a minimum score on the B Impact Assessment are certified as B Corps. Builds a Community: B Lab fosters a global community of B Corps, providing resources, support, and opportunities for collaboration. Advocates for Change: B Lab advocates for legal and regulatory changes that support a more inclusive and sustainable economy.
sustainable business: A business that is structured in ways to use natural resources only at rates at which their productive capacity continues indefinitely for use by future generations.
Global Reporting Initiative: is an international independent standards organization that helps businesses, governments, and other organizations understand and communicate their impact on issues such as climate change, human rights, and corruption.
corporate environmental responsibility: refers to the obligation of businesses to minimize their environmental impact while contributing to sustainable development. It is a subset of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that specifically addresses ecological concerns.
sustainable economics: refers to an economic system designed to support human well-being while protecting and preserving natural ecosystems for future generations. It emphasizes a balance between economic growth, environmental health, and social equity, promoting practices that are not only financially viable but also ecologically and socially responsible.
sustainable development: is the process of meeting present human needs while ensuring the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It integrates economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity to create a balanced and resilient society.
natural capitalism: an economic philosophy that seeks to align economic practices with the principles of sustainability by recognizing the value of natural ecosystems and their services. It extends traditional capitalism by accounting for "natural capital"—the natural resources and ecological systems that provide vital goods and services to humanity.
natural capital: refers to the world's stock of natural resources and ecosystems that provide goods and services essential for life, economic activity, and human well-being. It includes tangible resources like water, forests, and minerals, as well as intangible services like pollination, climate regulation, and nutrient cycling.
ubiquitous: means something that is present, appearing, or found everywhere. It conveys a sense of omnipresence, where an object, concept, or phenomenon is so widespread that it is virtually unavoidable or common in various contexts.
annual sustainability report: a comprehensive document published by an organization to communicate its environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance over the past year. It provides stakeholders—such as investors, employees, customers, and the public—with transparency about the company’s sustainability goals, strategies, and achievements.
preference-optimizing trade-offs: involve making decisions where competing preferences or goals must be balanced to achieve an optimal outcome based on specific priorities. These trade-offs are common in areas such as economics, sustainability, resource allocation, and personal decision-making, where it is impossible to maximize all objectives simultaneously.
a commons problem: refers to a situation where individuals acting in their own self-interest exploit a shared resource, leading to its depletion or degradation, even though it is in everyone’s long-term interest to conserve it. This phenomenon is often called the "tragedy of the commons", a term popularized by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968.
total privation: refers to a state of complete deprivation or absence of something essential or fundamental. It is often used in philosophical, theological, or humanitarian contexts to describe a situation where individuals or systems lack critical resources, attributes, or conditions necessary for survival, well-being, or fulfillment.
Chapter 4
PDF PPT CHAPTER 04 PDP BIZ ETHICS '24.pptx.pdfhttps://www.netflix.com/watch/81005045?trackId=14170286 (The Wagon Wheel - 2020)
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ombudsman
https://www.youtube.com/user/cfpbvideo
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=corporate+culture
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-importance-of-ethics-policies-training-reporting-programs-in-the-workplace.html
https://study.com/learn/lesson/what-is-a-whistleblower-ethics-law-examples-of-the-whistleblower-protection-act.html
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=servant+leadership
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=jim+collins
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=jim+collins+built+to+last
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=codes+of+conduct
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=codes+of+ethics
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Raymond+Gilmartin
Chapters 5 and 10
PDF PPT CHAPTER 05 PDP BIZ ETHICS '24.pptx.pdfColander12e_Ch10_Final-original.pptxhttps://www.blackrock.com/corporate/investor-relations/larry-fink-ceo-letter
https://www.bls.gov/jlt/data.htm
https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2018/08/07/for-most-us-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/jan/04/great-resignation-quitting-us-unemployment-economy
https://hbr.org/2021/09/who-is-driving-the-great-resignation
https://www.chicagotribune.com/1985/11/11/silver-spoon-fits-why-not-wear-it/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Studs+Terkel%2C+Working
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=habits+of+the+heart+bellah
https://archive.org/details/humansideofenter00mcgr/page/n3/mode/2up
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=douglas+mcgregor+theory+x+and+theory+y
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=great+resignation
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ecclesiastes%201&version=NIV
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=work+and+labor+according+to+Charlie+Chaplin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_Work_Disappears
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=William+Julius+Wilson%2C+When+Work+Disappears
https://ia800306.us.archive.org/7/items/GoodWork-English-E.F.Schumacher/goodwork.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=E.+F.+Schumacher%2C+Good+Work
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_work
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Karl+Marx%2C+The+Economic+and+Philosophical+Manuscripts+of+1844%2C
https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/download/pdf/Economic-Philosophic-Manuscripts-1844.pdf
https://archive.org/details/priorityoflaborc0000baum
https://www.usccb.org/upload/economic_justice_for_all.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Justice_for_All
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Baum
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=al+gini++Work%2C+Identity+and+Self%3A+How+We+Are+Formed+by+the+Work+We
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zcxvAL8P1Q
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=norman+bowie+kantian+theory+of+meaningful+work
Business Ethics: A Kantian Perspective (with Norman Bowie) | Immanuel Kant Philosophy #5
https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions
https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/139811?v=pdf
https://www.patagonia.com/core-values/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Herman+Daly%2C+Beyond+Growth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Daly
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Julian+Simon%2C+The+Ultimate+Resource
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Simon
https://www.brookings.edu/articles/global-poverty-is-declining-but-not-fast-enough/
http://ereserve.library.utah.edu/Annual/PSY/3130/Johnston/bongaarts.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bongaarts
https://www.wfp.org/publications/global-report-food-crises-grfc
https://www.wfp.org/publications/nutrition-snapshot-2024
https://www.who.int/news/item/06-07-2022-un-report--global-hunger-numbers-rose-to-as-many-as-828-million-in-2021
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hawken
https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-political-rights
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights
https://www.ilo.org/topics-and-sectors/fundamental-principles-and-rights-work#:~:text=The%20ILO%20Declaration%20on%20Fundamental%20Principles%20and%20Rights,are%20vital%20to%20our%20social%20and%20economic%20lives.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-ethics-quarterly/article/is-it-time-to-jump-off-the-sustainability-bandwagon/828A7C459A22F428646A8DCDD2E31751
https://www.storydoc.com/blog/sustainability-report-examples
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Common_Future
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Our+Common+Future https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=biopysical+limits
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Jones_Sustainability_Indices
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative
https://www.globalreporting.org/
https://www.globalreporting.org/media/mlkjpn1i/gri-sasb-joint-publication-april-2021.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGqE4OO0_7g
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
https://www.wbcsd.org/
https://www.interface.com/US/en-US.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_River_Rouge_complex
https://www.thehenryford.org/visit/ford-rouge-factory-tour/
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=biomimicry
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=cradle+to+grave
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=NATURAL+CAPITALISM
Chapter 11
PDF PPT CHAPTER 11 PDP BIZ ETHICS '24.pptx.pdf· https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/27/nyregion/justice-department-gays-workplace.html
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeToo_movement
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%27s_Ideological_Echo_Chamber
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnes_v._Train
· https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964
· https://study.com/learn/lesson/civil-rights-act-1964-summary-effects-impact.html
· https://study.com/learn/lesson/discrimination-workplace-forms-types.html
· https://study.com/academy/lesson/equal-employment-opportunity-title-vii-law-regulations.html
Chapter 12
PDF PPT CHAPTER 12 PDP BIZ ETHICS '24.pptx.pdf• https://www.fairtrade.net/en.html • https://wfto.com/ • https://www.fairtradefederation.org/what-is-fair-trade/
• https://www.fairtradeamerica.org/ • International Fair Trade Charter • A Brief History of Fair Trade
• What is Ethical Relativism?
• U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
• https://natlawreview.com/article/president-trump-orders-fcpa-freeze-doj-announces-major-policy-realignment-de
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-ethics-of-bribery-in-global-marketing.html
• Why business and ethics don't seem to mix | Richard DeGeorge
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=thomas+donaldson+ethical+algorithm
• https://archive.org/details/ethicsofinternat0000dona/page/n7/mode/2up
• https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/GuidingPrinciplesBusinessHR_EN.pdf
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Guiding_Principles_on_Business_and_Human_Rights
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ruggie+framework
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/ethical-issues-in-international-business.html#/lesson
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Richard+DeGeorge%2C+Competing+with+Integrity+in+International+Business
• https://www.economist.com/special-report/2001/09/29/globalisation-and-its-critics
• https://davidkorten.org/WCRW/
• https://www.youtube.com/results search_query=david+korten+when+corporations+rule+the+world
• https://archive.org/details/justtradingoneth0000finn •
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lexus_and_the_Olive_Tree
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=lexus+and+the+olive+tree
• https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/socialprotection
• https://www.imf.org/en/Capacity-Development/Training/ICDTC/Courses/IG
• https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_e.htm
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=John+McCall%2C+An+Ethical+Basis+for+Employee+Participation
• https://www.ifpri.org/
• https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=The+Impact+of+Food+Aid+on+Local+Agriculture+(International+Food+Policy+Research+Institute)
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse