The 14 PRINCIPLES ARE DEVIDED INTO THOSE REFERRING TO :

1. Cognitive and metacognitive 

2. Motivational and affective. 

3. Developmental and social 

4. Individual difference factors 

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the Learning Process -  The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. 

2. Goals of the Learning Process -  The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

3. Construction of Knowledge - The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. 

4. Strategic Thinking - The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning to achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about Thinking - Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

6. Context of Learning - Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices. 

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning - What and how much is learned is influenced by motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn - The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optional novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. 

9. Effects of Motivation on Effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. 

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental Influences on L earning - As individuals, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. 

11. Social Influences on Learning - Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communications with others. 

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS

12 . Individual Differences in Learning - Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. 

13. Learning and Diversity - Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. 

14. Standards and Assessment - Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment - are integral parts of the learning process. 

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING, CONCEPTS, AND APPROACHES

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Growth – refers to the increase in size and number; has a quantitative measure; involves the increase in size and number.

- Increase in physical size of a whole or any of its parts, or an increase in number and size of cells: Growth can be measured.

Development – refers to an improvement in circumstances; has a qualitative measure; encompasses overall changes, including growth and other progressive changes.

- Development is the relatively orderly adaptive changes that people go through from conception to death.

Child Development - Refers to how a child becomes able to do more complex things as he/ she becomes older; examines how human beings change from the time of conception, throughout infancy and childhood, and into adolescence.

Human Development - the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.

• includes growth and decline

• can be positive or negative

B.  DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT 

Biological (or physical) development- involves the growth and change in a person’s body and body functions. In this domain, we look at physiological and motor (movement) development, as well as the influence of health, illness, and nutrition.

Cognitive (or mental) development- refers to the growth and change of a person’s ability to process information, solve problems, and gain knowledge. In this developmental domain, we consider the study of brain development, memory learning, thinking, language, and creativity.

Socioemotional (or psychosocial) development- Involves the growth and change of our interactions with others, and our feelings. Included in this domain is the study of relationships, emotions, personality, and moral development.

SOME PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

PRINCIPLE 1 - Development is relatively orderly.

PRINCIPLE 2 - While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcome of developmental process and the rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.

PRINCIPLE 3 - Development takes place gradually.

PRINCIPLE 4 - Development as a process complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio- emotional process.

• Proximodistal development- occurs when the center or core of the body in an outward direction. The spine develops first in the uterus, followed by the extremities and finally, the fingers and toes. 

• Cephalocaudal development- refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down. An infant will gain control over their    neck muscles first, which allows them to hold their head steady.

• Proximodistal Pattern- Development proceeds from the center of the body outward

• Cephalocaudal Pattern - Development proceeds from the head downward.

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT  

    GENETICS/HEREDITY

• Gender

• Health

• Intelligence

     ENVIRONMENT

• Socio-economic status

• Parent-Child relationship

• Religion/Culture

• Early Sensory Stimulation

• Training and education

• Media / Technology

     TEMPERAMENT

• Activity levels

• Adaptability

• Distractibility

• Mood Quality

• Attention Span

      NUTRITION

• Material Nutrition

• Child Nutrition

APPROACHES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

TRADITIONAL - Human development shows extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in the late old age. 

LIFE-SPAN - Human development occurs all throughout the lifespan of an individual.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

LIFE-LONG - It does not end by adulthood and no development stage dominates the development.

MULTI-DIMENSIONAL  - Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional dimensions.

PLASTIC - Development is possible throughout the life-span.

CONTEXTUAL - Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.

GROWTH, MAINTENANCE AND REGULATION -  These are considered goals in that varies in every developmental change

THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENT TASK 

DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD/STAGE: a time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain features,

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Pre-natal Period

2. Infancy (birth – 2 years)

3. Early Childhood (3 – 5 years)

4. Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years)

5. Adolescence (13 – 18 years)

6. Early Adulthood (19 – 29 years)

7. Middle Adulthood (30 – 60 years)

8. Late Adulthood (61 years and above)

PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT : Progress before birth

PRENATAL - It involves tremendous growth – from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.

3 PHASES

• GERMINAL STAGE = First 2 weeks

-  conception, implantation, formation of placenta

• EMBRYONIC STAGE = 2 weeks - 2 months

      -  formation of vital organs and systems

• FETAL STAGE = 2 months – birth

              - bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability.

INFANCY (Birth-2 years)

• extreme dependence on adults

• beginning psychological activities

• language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor

• coordination, and social learning

• language of newborn is the cry

• usually eats every 2 to 3 hours

• uncoordinated movements

• toothless

• poor vision (focusing range 8 to 12 inches)usually doubles weight by 9 months

• responds to human voice & touch

(1 year old)

•  change from plump baby to leaner more muscular toddler

•  begins to walk & talk

•  ability for passive language (better understanding of what’s being said)

•  tentative sense of independence

•  determined explorer

TODDLER (2 years old)

• begins to communicate verbally (name, etc.)

• can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences

• famous for negative behavior “NO!” to everything! temper tantrums

•  will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them

• great imitators 

EARLY CHILDHOOD (3 – 5 YEARS OLD)

• wants to be just like parents

• vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand

• climbs stairs with alternating feet

• can briefly stand on one foot

EARLY CHILDHOOD (4 YEARS OLD)

• sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand

•  imagination is vivid; line between what is real & imaginary is often indistinct

EARLY CHILDHOOD (5 YEARS OLD)

•  can hop on one foot & skip

• can accurately copy figures

• may begin to read

• socialize with other children their age 

MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (6-12 YEARS OLD)

• both large & small muscles well-developed

• developed complex motor skills

• independent activities to same sex group activities

• acceptance by peers very important

• parental approval still important

ADOLESCENCE (13-18 YEARS OLD)

• traumatic life stage for child & parent

• puberty occurs

• extremely concerned with appearance

• trying to establish self-identity

• confrontations with authority

EARLY ADULTHOOD / YOUNG ADULT (19-29 YEARS OLD)

• physical development complete

• emotional maturation continues to develop

• usually learned to accept responsibility for actions & accept criticism

• usually knows how to profit from errors

• socially progress from age-related peer groups to people with similar interests

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (30-60 YEARS OLD)

• physical changes begin to occur:

• hair begins to thin & gray

• wrinkles appear

• hearing & vision decrease

• muscles lose tone

• main concerns: children, health, job security, aging parents, & fear of aging

• love & acceptance still take a major role

LATE ADULTHOOD (61 YEARS AND ABOVE)

• growing age bracket of society

• physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination)

• some memory pro

• coping with retirement & forms of entertainment

• very concerned with health & finances

• significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

• Learning to take food

• Learning to walk

• Learning to talk

• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes

• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty

• Getting ready to read

• Learning to distinguish right and wrong and learning to develop a conscience

• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

• Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism

• Learning to get along with age-mates

• Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine social roles

• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating

• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living

• Developing conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values

• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

• Achieving personal independence

ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 

NATURE AND NURTURE

Nature - Our genetic influences – inborn traits

Nurture - Environmental influences (everything non-genetic)

Nature and Nurture: the extent to which development is influenced by biological inheritance and /or environmental experiences.

• Nature proponents argue that an evolutionary and genetic foundation produces commonalities in growth and development.

• Nurture proponents emphasize the importance of both the biological and social environments.

Nature - People behave the way they do because they are animals who act in accordance with their animal instincts and are determined by their biology.

Nurture -  People behave the way they do because they are determined by the things other people teach them, the things they observe around them, and because of the different situations they are put in.

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUE

Stability and Change

 - the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change

• Stability: traits and characteristics are the result of heredity and early life experiences

• Change: traits and characteristics can be altered by later experiences

• Role of early and later experiences is hotly debated

Continuity and Discontinuity

  - focuses on whether development is either:

• A process of gradual, cumulative change (continuous)

• A set of distinct stages (discontinuous)

Evaluating Developmental Issues:

• Most developmentalists acknowledge that development is not all-or-nothing

• There is debate regarding how strongly each of these issues influences development

THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT 

   Conceptions of Age

• How relevant is chronological age to understanding a person’s psychological development?

• How should age be conceptualized?

  Chronological age

• number of years that have elapsed since birth

  Biological age

•  a person’s age in terms of biological health

 Psychological age

• an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age

  Social age

• social roles and expectations related to a person’s age