Games of East Asia

The following is a summary of games found China, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan prior to 1600 CE and supporting evidence.  Some games are found in multiple cultures under different names, but identical rules.  Others games are variants of a common ancestor that evolved in a specific culture or region.

Weiqi (圍棋) - More commonly known by its Japanese name "Go" (碁) or it's Korean name "Baduk" (바둑).  This game originates in China, but exactly how long ago is not known.  Earliest text reference in 5th century BCE.  Simple rules, but strategically complex.

Yunnori (윷놀이) - This is a Korean race game known by several names such as yut, yutnori, or nyout. It is still played today around the fall festival (chuseok).  Exact time of invention is fuzzy, but there is strong evidence of it being around from the 8th century onward.  Player’s advance pieces around a board by throwing 4 sticks, which produce results from 1 to 5.

Chess Family:  These games are believed to share a common ancestor with European Chess, the 7th century Indian game Chaturanga.

• Xiangqi (象棋) - Also known as "Chinese Chess" or "Elephant Chess."  Clear evidence that it goes back to at least the Song dynasty. One of its more interesting and unique pieces is the cannon, which moves like a rook but must jump over another piece to capture.  It is also popular in Vietnam where it is known as "cờ tướng."

• Janggi (장기) - Also called “Korean Chess.”  It was first mentioned in literature in the late 16th or early 17th century, but evidence is strong that it existed for some time prior.  It is very similar to Xiangqi.  The main differences are lack of river across the center of the board, certain pieces can move more freely, and players have some options on where their pieces start.

• Shogi (将棋) - Also called "Japanese Chess" or "The Game of Generals." It had numerous variants in Japan from the Heian period to the Edo period.  It's believed the current standardized version of the game emerged in the 16th century.  One of its unique features is the ability to place captured pieces back onto the board, thus using the opponent's pieces against them.

• Shatar (ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠰᠢᠲᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ Monggol sitar-a) - Also called "Mongolian Chess."  Exact dating is difficult, but academics believe it was derived from the Arabic/Persian chess ancestor "Shantranj" some time in the 13th century, due to the similarities of the game and the Mongol military campaigns in those areas.

Chinese Dominoes (骨牌 Mandarin: gǔpái, Cantonese: gwāt pái).  Used to play multiple games and are still popular today.  First appearing in literature around the 12th century, though documentation of precise game rules is spotty prior to the 17th century.  A set contains 32 tiles with 21 unique patterns, but 11 patterns appear twice.  Korean dominoes (gol-pae 골배) are schematically identical but have slightly different dimensions and layout of pips.  There are many Chinese and Korean games documented from 1893 to the present day that are of unknown age.

• Tian jiu (天九) - The game dates back to at least the Ming Dynasty.  This game, known in modern times by its Cantonese name Tien Gow, is documented to 1610, and that source indicates it having existed for some time prior, and this likely existed well before 1600.  This old rule set is a bit different from modern versions.  I created a full write-up of the old version of this this game and it's rules here.

• Pai Gow (牌九) - One of several games that can be played with Chinese dominoes.  This is a gambling game that is still played today, and is mostly a game of chance with little strategy possible.  Allegedly goes back to the Song Dynasty, however the sources claiming so are unreliable and further inquiry is needed to determine if this is true.

Chinese playing cards:  There were many types of cards in Chinese history starting around the late Song dynasty, though there are very few surviving extant decks due to the fragility of paper.  So-called “money-suited cards” are fairly well-documented from the 15th century and continued to be used well into the 19th century.  Rules for two games were documented by Pan Zhihen in the early 17th century:

• Madiao (馬弔 ) - A four player trick-taking card game played with a 40 card, four suited deck.

• Khanhoo ("kanhǔ" 看虎) - A two to three player draw-and-discard card game played with a 30 card, three suited deck.  An Western adaptation was invented in the late 19th century which uses a variant of standard French playing cards and with different rules.

Karuta (かるた)- These Japanese cards were directly derived from those brought by Portuguese traders in the very late 16th century.  Playing cards in Japan continued to evolve uniquely in isolation after the beginning of the Edo period, often changing in ways designed to skirt gambling restrictions.

Pitch-pot (Chinese: tóuhú 投壺 , Japanese: tōko 投壺, Korean: tuho 투호 or Vietnamese: đầu hồ) - A simple but challenging sport of throwing arrows into a pot or vase.  Believed to have started around the Warring States Period by idle soldiers throwing their arrows into cups or bottles.  It was well-known throughout almost all of Asia by the end of the 16th century.

Ban-sugoroku (盤双六) A Japanese  “tables” or backgammon-style game.  Believed to have originated in China (where it was known as “Shuang lu”) and introduced to Japan around the 6th century, it remained popular until the early Edo period. 

Lian Qi -  Known by different names in China:  Lian qi 连棋, Lian huan ma qi 连环马棋, Zhi qi 直棋 , Cheng san qi 成三棋, and Ji ri ge 吉日格.  In the 19th century, it was more often called Sān qí (三棋), Jirig (Mongolia), Kon-tjil (Korea), or Dig Dig (Malaysia).  It is essentially Twelve Man’s Morris, and likely spread there from the days of the Roman Empire.  Earliest artifact in East Asia is from the Balhae region around the 9th century.  Artifacts are found across the Northern Steppes, including in Mongolia. While the “nine man” board format was found in China, the “twelve man” board with diagonal lines was much more popular.  (Source:  Wu, S., Sebillaud, P. Research on the merels game in medieval China. Asian Archaeol 4, 41–52 (2020)).

Cuju or “Keepie Uppie” family of games.  These games all involve a group of players keeping a light weight ball or shuttlecock-like object in the air without use of the hands or arms, and primarily using the feet and legs to kick the object.  These games are believed to be ancestors of soccer.

• Cuju (蹴鞠) - Chinese version and likely the oldest that inspired the others.  Goes back to the Warring States period and Han dynasty.  More formal versions involve kicking a ball through a high opening to score points.

• Kemari (蹴鞠) -  Japanese version.  Heian and Kamakura eras (8th to 14th century).  Non-competitive and still done today as part of festivals.

• Jiànzi (毽子):  A later Chinese game using a shuttlecock.

• Jegichagi (제기차기) - Korean version.  Uses a coin wrapped in paper to form a shuttlecock. 

Chuiwan (捶丸) A sport popular from the Song to the Ming Dynasty. Its rules are surprisingly similar to modern golf.  Is sometimes played in modern settings using croquet-like arches.  (Videos:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7xP4mETUzo    https://www.youtube.com/shorts/-Oqg20RM0YY)

Kai-awase (貝合わせ "shell-matching") is a Japanese game that dates from the Heian period.  It consisted of matching pairs of shells that were each decorated with poetry or painted scenes.  However, a full set consists of 360 shells and there are currently no sources for obtaining ones suitable for gameplay.

Liubo (六博) was an ancient Chinese board game for two players. The rules have largely been lost, but it is believed that each player had six game pieces that were moved around the points of a square game board that had a distinctive, symmetrical pattern. 

Appendix I:  Selection of Games from Southeast Asia

Sittuyin (စစ်တုရင်) - Also called "Burmese Chess."  Confirmed pieces have been found from the 14th century, but documentation of rules is scarce until later European accounts.  The board starts with only pawns in a staggered formation, and players then "deploy" their other pieces behind them in almost any formation they wish.

Makruk (หมากรุก)  - Also called "Thai Chess."  Earliest depictions appear in the 12th century.

Ouk chaktrang (អុកចត្រង្) - Also called "Cambodian Chess." The name is often shortened to "ouk."  Believed to have been played since the 12th century, it is very similar to makruk but with small differences regarding specific moves of the "lord" and "seed" pieces.  In Vietnam, this game is called "cờ ốc" meaning "snail chess" due to the shape of the pieces.

Sepak raga - Indonesian and Malay version of Cuju which uses a rattan ball.

Mancala variants:  Mancala is not a singular game but a family of them, many so old that the origin is not known conclusively.  There are several versions that are specific to Southeast Asia.  One of the most popular and well-documented is a form using two rows of 7 pits, each filled with 7 seeds.  Names include congkak in Malaysia, dakon in Indonesia, tungkayon in southern Thailand, and sungkâ in the Philippines.

Appendix II:  19th and 20th century games sometimes mislabeled as being older.

Mahjong (麻將) - While sometimes misleadingly marketed as an ancient Chinese game, it was actually created in the mid- to late 19th century, with the oldest surviving set dating to 1870.  It is believed to have been derived from card games played in the earlier 19th century.

Chinese checkers - Despite the name, this game is not Chinese nor has any relation to checkers other than its jump mechanic.  It was invented in Germany in 1892 and originally called "Stern-Halma."  The English name was created in 1928 in the US as a marketing scheme.