Solomon Islands Form 6 Past Exam Papers Pdf Download
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Global climatic change, sea-level rise, and changes in storm magnitude and frequency pose threats to the continued physical persistence of low-lying coral reef islands, and consequently the continued human occupation of atoll nations where reef islands provide the only habitable land1,2. Anthropogenically driven climate change over the past century and specifically the combined effects of sea-level rise and modification in the wave climate regime3,4,5, are expected to trigger substantial changes in the physical structure of islands, including erosion, increased instability, loss of freeboard relative to sea level, and in the worst cases complete loss of islands6,7.
Early assessments of the impacts of sea-level rise on reef islands focussed on shoreline erosion, with a number of studies speculating entire loss of habitable land8,9. However, more recent studies using both field-based and modelling approaches indicate a broader suite of future outcomes for small islands and their communities, in which islands will continue to persist and remain available for habitation1,6,10. Modelling of wave interactions with reef systems and island shorelines indicates atoll islands will be subject to an increased frequency of flooding and likely salinization of groundwater tables1,11. For modelling purposes, these studies assumed that the geomorphic structure of islands, including size and elevation, remain constant, whereas remote sensing12,13,14,15,16,17 and field-based studies18,19 have highlighted the dynamic physical characteristics of islands which can change their shape, size, location and elevation on coral reef platforms from event to multi-decadal timescales. Collectively, these studies have provided important developments in refining the tangible and immediate threats to island communities, including the likely increase in flooding hazards, and the rates, styles and magnitude of physical island change. More recent modelling studies have begun to examine the physical island response to wave and sea-level changes and show that alongshore redistribution of sediments, and wave overtopping and overwash sedimentation provide physical process mechanisms for observed island transformations6,7,20,21.
The lens of existing studies has been on recent responses in the context of changing sea level, with an implicit assumption that reef islands remained relatively stable in position prior to the measured acceleration in sea-level rise over the past century. The assumption of island stability is largely untested, and it is unclear whether recent (past decades) or future changes are unusual in the context of the history of island physical dynamics. Understanding the magnitudes and trajectories of island change, and knowing which parts of islands are changing and which are stationary, is fundamental to inform robust adaptation and land-use planning in island nations. However, studies that examine contemporary island change are still few, and the temporal scale of analysis is not well calibrated to the longer-term (millennial-scale) context of island physical dynamics.
Studies of the formation of reef islands have typically focussed on evolution over millennial timeframes based on radiometric dating of island sediments that have resolved the onset, and window of island accumulation in the mid-to-late Holocene (Fig. 1b)25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33. Such studies have also yielded valuable information on the relationship between sea level and island formation, showing that islands have formed at different sea-level stages during the mid-to-late Holocene (Fig. 1b). The timeframe of island accumulation has also been shown to vary. For example, Boduhini and Dhakandhoo islands in the Maldives (b and h in Fig. 1b) formed across discrete 1500- and 1000-year periods26,27. Formation of islands in discrete phases, in response to storm processes, has also been identified in Tuvalu and the Marshall Islands (q, u and v in Fig. 1b)28,29. In contrast, Vaadhoo in the Maldives, and Warraber Island in the Torres Strait (g and l in Fig. 1b) have evolved continuously since their initial formation 4500 and 6000 years ago, respectively30,31. Such observations suggest that, for some islands, change is likely to have been an ongoing process, and for those islands that have been inhabited for the past 2000 years, communities have adapted to these changes.
Implicit in the methodological approach of evolutionary studies, is the treatment of the extant volume of island sediment, and the island footprint, as the terminal endpoint of formation, employing radiometric evidence to account for the island at the time of the study, rather than a point in the evolutionary trajectory. This approach can lead to an assumption that islands have incrementally expanded their footprint on reef surfaces over their formation and necessarily obscures any short (decadal) to medium-term (centennial) dynamism in island size, shape and location. In part, these interpretations are constrained by the fact that very few studies have a sufficient number of samples (cores) or radiometric ages in vertical sequences to resolve depositional histories in detail. Furthermore, while a few studies have identified morphological features that indicate islands have occupied different positions on their reef surface30,32, chronologies have not been established for these features to resolve the medium-term (centennial) dynamism of islands in their evolutionary history.
The results are structured to consider island dynamics at three timescales; millennial and centennial timeframes to resolve historical patterns of change; and, recent changes that span the last half-century. Results are subsequently examined to address the question of whether the most recent changes are unusual in the context of past island changes.
Beachrock forms through the cementation of beach sediments by calcium carbonate cements in the intertidal zone and provides an indicator of past shoreline position, orientation and slope36. Eight distinctive beachrock outcrops occur on the northern and eastern Kandahalagalaa shoreline, providing geological markers of shoreline position over the past 1000 years (Fig. 3 and Supplementary Table 3). Each outcrop has a distinct planform orientation (strike) that differs from the contemporary shoreline, and their beach slope (dip) and exposure reveal substantive differences in shoreline position relative to the present beach.
Significantly, there has been a negligible movement of the shoreline on the central northern shoreline, proximal to beachrock 6 (Figs. 3a, 4c). The large gross changes in shoreline on either side of this location suggests there has been a substantial flux of sediment past this point and it may act as the fulcrum for island rotation. This location is also close to island core 13, which did not exhibit any radiometric age inversions and supports the hypothesis that this part of the island may have remained stable since island formation with subsequent expansion south (Fig. 5).
The evolutionary dynamics of the island in the late Holocene are examined based on the island morphology and sedimentary structure, which is temporally constrained by radiometric dating. The topography of Kandahalagalaa reef platform from reef edge to island surface was surveyed along four transects (Supplementary Fig. 2a). The island morphology was characterised based on six survey transects (Supplementary Fig. 2a). All surveys were conducted using a laser level, and surveys were reduced to mean sea level using sea-level records at Gan (0041S, 7309E) accessed through the University of Hawaii Sea Level Center.
At the centennial to millennial timescale, a sequence of conspicuous beachrock outcrops was examined to reconstruct paleo-shoreline positions. Beachrock forms through the lithification of beach sediments by calcium carbonate cements in the intertidal zone and provides an indicator of past shoreline position, orientation and slope36. At Kandahalagalaa, a set of lithified beachrock outcrops were identified on the northern and eastern sides of the island, a number of which are detached from the existing shoreline (Supplementary Fig. 2a). The orientation of each outcrop relative to the north was identified from satellite imagery, while topographic surveys across each outcrop determined its elevation, slope and beachface orientation. Surveys were also reduced to mean sea level (MSL). Small cores were retrieved from each outcrop using a handheld drill and examined to assess the fabric of the beachrock. Radiometric ages were determined on 11 beachrock samples. Specifically, dates were determined on the bulk sand matrix of the beachrock and thus only provide an indication of the earliest possible time of formation associated with the death of organisms. Radiometric ages are presented in Supplementary Table 2.
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