Journal Articles

J41 Croteau, E., & Heffernan, N. (2026). Seeing Is Solving: MLLMs, Reasoning, and Refusal in Visual Math. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 18(1), 244-285. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19420820 https://jedm.educationaldatamining.org/index.php/JEDM/article/view/1088 

J40 Lim, W.-C., Heffernan, N., Sales, A. (2025). Evaluating the Effects of Assignment Report Usage on Student Outcomes in an Intelligent Tutoring System: A Randomized-Encouragement Design. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 17 (1), 248-275. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15366697 

J39 Lu, X., Yang, Q., Wei, J., & Heffernan, N. T. (2025, October). From belief to evidence: Simpler immediate feedback improves language learning and confidence in semi-open-ended questions. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 10, p. 1654809). Frontiers Media SA. 

J38 Zhang, F., Li, C., Henkel, O., Xing, W., Baral, S., Heffernan, N., & Li, H. (2024). Math-LLMs: AI Cyberinfrastructure with Pre-trained Transformers for Math Education. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-024-00416-y  

J37 Vanacore, K. P., Gurung, A., Sales, A., & Heffernan, N. (2024). Effect of Gamification on Gamers: Evaluating Interventions for Students Who Game the System: Evaluating Interventions for Students Who Gaming the System. Journal of Educational Data Mining, 16(1), 112–140. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11549799

J36 Cheng, L., Croteau, E., Baral, S., Heffernan, C., & Heffernan, N. (2024). Facilitating Student Learning With a Chatbot in an Online Math Learning Platform. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 0(0). Author's Copy https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331241226592 

J35 Lu, X., Wang, W., Motz, B. A., Ye, W., & Heffernan, N. T. (2023). Immediate text-based feedback timing on foreign language online assignments: How immediate should immediate feedback be? Computers and Education Open, 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100148. Author copy

J34 Sales, A.C., Gagnon-Bartsch, J.A., Prihar, E.B., & Heffernan, N.T. (2023). Using Auxiliary Data to Boost Precision in the Analysis of A/B Tests on an Online Educational Platform: New Data and New Results. Journal of Educational Data Mining. Volume 15, No 2, 2023 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8016854  

J33 Gagnon-Bartsch, J. A., Sales, A.C.,*, Wu, E.,  Botelho,  A. F.,  Erickson,  J. A., Miratrix,  L. W., & Heffernan, N. T. (Accepted 2023). Precise unbiased estimation in randomized experiments using auxiliary observational data. Journal of Casual Inference. Vol 11, #1. https://doi.org/10.1515/jci-2022-0011 https://arxiv.org/abs/2105.03529 

J30 Botelho, A., Baral, S., Erickson, J., Benachamardi, P., & Heffernan, N. (2023). Leveraging natural language processing to support automated assessment and feedback for student open responses in mathematics. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12793     

J32 Huang, W., Labille, K., Wu, X., Lee, D. & Heffernan, N. (2022). Achieving User-Side Fairness in Contextual Bandits. Human-Centric Intelligent Systems. Springer.  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44230-022-00008-w 

J29 McCarthy, K. S., Crossley, S. A., Meyers, K., Boser, U., Allen, L. K., Chaudhri, V. K., Collins-Thompson, K., D'Mello, S., De Choudhury, M., Garg, K., Goel, A., Gosha, K., Heffernan, N., Hooper, M. A., Hyman, E., Jarratt, D. C., Khalil, D., Kizilcec, R. F., Litman, D., . . . Zampieri, M. (2022). Toward more effective and equitable learning: Identifying barriers and solutions for the future of online education.Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 3(1), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000063

J31 Lu, X., Sales, A., & Heffernan, N. T. (2021). Immediate Versus Delayed Feedback on Learning: Do People’s Instincts Really Conflict With Reality?. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 21(16). https://doi.org/10.33423/jhetp.v21i16.4925 

J28 Patikorn, T., Baker, R. S., & Heffernan, N. T. (2020). ASSISTments Longitudinal Data Mining Competition Special Issue: A Preface. JEDM | Journal of Educational Data Mining, 12(2), i-xi. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4008048  This is part of a Special Issue that Heffernan et al organized . The competition web site where 70+ researchers participated is here. 

J27 Lu, X., Ostrow, K., & Heffernan, N. (2020). Save Your Strokes: Chinese Handwriting Practice Makes for Ineffective Use of Instructional Time in Second Language. AERA Open.  Volume 6(2)  https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858419890326

J26  Graesser, A. C., Hu, X., Nye, B. D., VanLehn, K.,Kumar, R., Heffernan, C., Heffernan, C., et al. (2018). ElectronixTutor: an intelligent tutoring system with multiple learning resources for electronics. International Journal of STEM Education, 5: 15. 

J25  Kai, S., Almeda, M. V., Baker, R., Heffernan, C., & Heffernan, N. (2018). Decision Tree Modeling of Wheel- Spinning and Productive Persistence in Skill Builders. JEDM | Journal of Educational Data Mining, 10(1), 36-71.  Errata and New version 

J23 Inventado, P., Scupelli, P., Ostrow, K., Heffernan, N., Almeda, V., & Slater, S. (2018). Contextual Factors Affecting Hint Utility, International Journal of STEM Education, 5(1), 13. 

J24 McGuire, P., Tu, S., Logue., M., Mason, C., Ostrow, K. (2017). Counterintuitive effects of online feedback in middle school math: results from a randomized controlled trial in ASSISTments. Educational Media International. Taylor Francis. Vol Pages 1-14. (Heffernan was not an author, but he helped these scientists use his platform.)

J21 Ostrow, K.S., Heffernan, N.T., & Williams, J.J. (2017). Tomorrow’s EdTech Today: Establishing a Learning Platform as a Collaborative Research Tool for Sound Science. Teachers College Record Volume 119 Number 3, 2017, p. 1-36. ID Number: 21779

J20 Heffernan, N.T., Ostrow, K.S., Kelly, K., Selent, D., Van Inwegen, E.G., Xiong, X., & Williams, J.J. (2016). The Future of Adaptive Learning: Does the Crowd Hold the Key? International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Springer New York. DOI: 10.1007/s40593-016-0094-z 

J19  Heffernan, N. & Heffernan, C. (2014). The ASSISTments Ecosystem: Building a Platform that Brings Scientists and Teachers Together for Minimally Invasive Research on Human Learning and Teaching. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 24 (4), 470-497. DOI 10.1007/s40593-014-0024-x. The Special Issue focused on landmark systems.

J18  Ocumpaugh, J., Baker, R., Gowda, S., Heffernan, N., Heffernan, C. (2014). Population validity for Educational Data Mining models: A case study in affect detection. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(3), 487-501. DOI: 10.1111/bjet.12156

J17  Pardos, Z.A., Gowda, S. M., Baker, R. S.J.D., & Heffernan, N. T. (2012). The Sum is Greater than the Parts: Ensembling Models of Student Knowledge in Educational Software. ACM’s Knowledge Discovery and Datamining Explorations, 13(2), 37-44.

J16  Gong, Y, Beck, J. E., Heffernan, N. T. (2011). How to Construct More Accurate Student Models: Comparing and Optimizing Knowledge Tracing and Performance Factor Analysis. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 21, 27-46.

J15  Pardos, Z., Dailey, M. & Heffernan, N. (2011). Learning what works in ITS from non-traditional randomized controlled trial data. The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 21, 47-63.

J13  Baker, R., Goldstein, A., Heffernan, N. (2011). Detecting the Moment of Learning. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 21(1-2), 5-25. (Get the data here)

J12  Broderick, Z., O’Connor, C., Mulcahy, C., Heffernan, N. & Heffernan, C. (2011). Increasing Parent Engagement in Student Learning Using an Intelligent Tutoring System.  Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 22(4), 523-550. Chesapeake, VA: AACE. 

J14  Koedinger, K., McLaughlin, E. & Heffernan, N. (2010). A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation of an On-line Formative Assessment and Tutoring System. Journal of Educational Computing Research. Baywood Publishing. 4, 489-510.

J11 Militello, M., & Heffernan, N. (2009). Which one is "just right"? What educators should know about formative assessment systems. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 4(3), 1-8.

J10  Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T., Heffernan, & C., Mani, M. (2009). Using Mixed-Effects Modeling to Analyze Different Grain-Sized Skill Models. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 2(2), 79-92. Featured Best Article of 8 articles in the edition (Based on PP8 and WP15)

J9 Razzaq, L., Patvarczki, J., Almeida, S.F., Vartak, M., Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T. and Koedinger, K. (2009). The ASSISTment builder: Supporting the Life-cycle of ITS Content Creation. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies Special Issue on Real-World Applications of Intelligent Tutoring Systems. 2(2) 157-166 (Based on YRP5)

J8 Feng, M., Heffernan, N.T., & Koedinger, K.R. (2009). Addressing the assessment challenge in an Intelligent Tutoring System that tutors as it assesses. The Journal of User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction. 19, 243-266. (Based on CP15) Best Paper of the Year (See Award #20 above). Mentioned in National Ed. Tech Plan (See Award #19).

J7  Mendicino, M., Razzaq, L. & Heffernan, N. T. (2009). Improving Learning from Homework Using Intelligent Tutoring Systems. Journal of Research on Technology in Education (JRTE). 41(3), 331-346.

J6  Baker, R., Walonoski, J., Heffernan, T., Roll, I., Corbett, A. & Koedinger, K. (2008). Why students engage in "Gaming the System" behavior in interactive learning environments Journal of Interactive Learning Research (JILR).19(2), 185-224. (Based on CP12 and PP5)

J2  Heffernan, N. T., Koedinger, K. & Razzaq, L. (2008). Expanding the model-tracing architecture: A 3rd generation intelligent tutor for Algebra symbolization. The International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 18(2), 153-178 (Builds upon CP8 and CP1-4).

J5  Razzaq, L., Heffernan, N., Feng, M., & Pardos Z. (2007). Developing Fine-Grained Transfer Models in the ASSISTment System. Journal of Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning. 5(3), 289-304.

J4  Feng, M., & Heffernan, N.T. (2007). Towards live informing and automatic analyzing of student learning: Reporting in the Assistment system. Journal of Interactive Learning Research (JILR) 18(2), 207-230. (Based on W12)

J3  Feng, M., & Heffernan, N.T. (2006). Informing teachers live about student learning: Reporting in the Assistment system Technology, Instruction, Cognition, and Learning Journal. 3(1-2), 63. (Based on W12)

J1  Heffernan, N. T., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). Results from a Web-Based Tutor for Writing Algebra Expressions for Word-Problems Sciences et Techniques Educatives. 9(1-2), 11-35. (This French language journal has translated our paper into French. My translation of this Journal’s title is "Educational Sciences and Technology.") http://www.inrp.fr/atief/ste/ste-res-vol9.htm (Based on D1)