Environmental Literacy & Stewardship

Background Information

Finding strong associations between various components of environmental literacy (e.g., knowledge and awareness) and behavior has proven to be elusive. The oldest and simplest models of pro-environmental behavior proposed the following relationship, which was shown to be wrong (Bruyere, 2008; Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002): Environmental knowledge à Environmental attitude à Pro-environmental behavior. Simply put, increases in knowledge and positive attitudes were found not to lead to pro-environmental behavior. More advanced theories, models and methodologies have been proposed to clarify the complex relationship between attitude and behavior measurement (e.g., Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Hines, Hungerford & Tomera, 1986; Hungerford & Volk, 1990; Stern, Dietz & Karlof, 1993; Hsu, 2004; Wells & Lekies, 2006). However, discovering a single framework or model that captures the complexity of the forces that shape environmental behavior has also proven to be elusive (Goodwin, 2016; Mcbride, Brewer, Berkowitz, & Borrie, 2013).

Instead of trying to find the all-encompassing framework, some researchers have focused their attention on the factors that are thought to influence pro-environmental behavior (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002). Gender and years of education are consistently linked to environmental attitude, knowledge and willingness to change. Age and income have also been studied, but results are mixed and context-specific (Barr, 2003; Cottrell, 2003; Larson et al., 2011). Consistent with previous studies, most researchers find that environmental knowledge accounts for only small amounts of variation in pro-environmental behavior (e.g., Kempton et al., 1995; Maitney, 2002; Morrone et al., 2001; Siemer & Knuth, 2001; Stables and Bishop, 2001). Early childhood experience was not studied to any systematic extent prior to 2002, but recent evidence is reviewed below. Direct links between environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior have yielded mixed results, with level of association increasing as the specificity of the attitude matches the specificity of the targeted behavior. Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) conclude their review of various models and factors by arguing that establishing new behavior requires practice and enough persistence until it becomes a habit.

Maitney's (2002) research provides evidence for the centrality of emotional involvement and direct experience in sustaining pro-environmental values and behavior. In congruence with Maitney, Siemer and Knuth (2001) found that fishing programs with direct fishing experience, the teaching of fishing skills and mentoring were more likely to influence antecedents of responsible behaviors in 12-14 year olds than fishing education programs without these elements. Other researchers have found an association between (a) outdoor recreation participation and environmental sensitivity (Palmer, 1993; Tanner, 1980) and (b) outdoor recreation and environmental knowledge and concern (Kellert, 1985).

Morrone, Mancl and Carr (2001) argue that ecological knowledge is a necessary, but insufficient, component of environmental literacy. Through a review of the literature and the use of experts, Morrone et al. (2001) developed an instrument that measured eight critical dimensions of ecological knowledge. In a study of Ohio residents, they found their instrument to be compatible with the theoretical literature and capable of discerning important group differences and similarities, including minority and nonminority variation.

Nisbet, Zelenski, and Murphy (2009) proposed a nature relatedness construct to describe the connectedness individuals experience with the natural world. This construct encompasses an individual's feelings for and appreciation of nature, as well as an understanding of the importance of nature. Findings suggest that individuals with higher nature relatedness spent more time outdoors participating in nature-related activities, were more often involved in environmental groups and pro-environmental behaviors such as sustainable consumption, and had stronger views about ecological problems.

The concept of action competence may also be related to the idea of environmental literacy. According to Jensen and Schnack (2006), action competence comprises both the analysis of environmental problems and the ability to envision and act on alternate environmental developments. Gooch et al. (2008) found that the development of "action-oriented" unit lesson plans could be effective in empowering students to act environmentally. Chawla and Cushing (2007), in their review of the findings of studies on action competence, found multiple factors to influence pro-environmental behaviors, including: experiencing nature as a child, having role models, participation in environmental organizations, and the development of action skills.

Research based on place-based learning likewise offers potential in expanding knowledge of environmental literacy (Johnson, Duffin, & Murphy, 2012). Kudryavtsev, Krasny and Stedman (2012) found that programs involving youth in environmental stewardship, recreation, environmental skills development, and environmental monitoring increased ecological place meaning, but did not strengthen students' place attachment.

In terms of research on youth and lifespan development, Wells and Lekies (2006) provide a review of the scholarship in three areas: outcomes of outdoor play and access to nature, environmental education program efficacy, and role of significant life experiences in adult environmental commitment. As to outdoor play and access to nature, studies have found evidence of short term links between contact with nature and children's emotional and cognitive well-being (Faber Taylor, Kuo, & Sullivan, 2001; Faber, Taylor, Kuo & Sullivan, 2002; Kellert, 2002; Wells, 2000; Wells & Evans, 2003. A few studies have examined longer term associations with a variety of dependent variables. Bixler, Floyd, and Hammitt (2002) found support for the influence of childhood play outdoors on adolescent environmental preferences, outdoor recreation participation and outdoor occupations. Lohr and Pearson-Mims (2005) learned that childhood activities connected to plants (growing up next to a garden, picking vegetables, planting trees, etc.) and time spent outdoors with trees or in parks predicted adulthood beliefs about plants and the propensity to complete a gardening class.

Environmental education research has focused on the extent to which such programs result in knowledge, attitude or behavior change and typically utilize pre- and post-program measures over relatively short time spans (e.g., Armstrong & Impara, 1991; Kellert, 1985; Pooley & O'Connor, 2000; Ramsey & Hungerford, 1989). Significant life experiences research explores the association between childhood nature experiences and adult environmental commitment primarily among environmental professionals or activists. A major finding is that childhood experiences with nature create a pathway to environmentalism among the groups studied (Chawla, 1999; Corcoran, 1999; Sward, 1999). However, Wells and Lekies (2006) surmise that the generalizabililty of such findings are limited due to the almost exclusive focus on environmental activists or professionals. Wells and Lekies conclude that long-term effects of early childhood unstructured play outdoors on older adult environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviors have not been substantiated.

In an attempt to fill this research void, Wells and Lekies (2006) employed a long-term, life course perspective and structural equation modeling based on results from a large representative sample of 2,000 individuals, aged 18-90, who were also urban dwellers. Controlling for age, race, gender, income and education, they found evidence for a significant, positive association between childhood nature experiences and adult environmental attitudes and behaviors.

Our Objective #2: Demonstrate and expand the evidence for the role of park and outdoor recreation services in promoting environmental literacy among youth, and document the long-term influences of early lifespan connections with nature.

Research on the correlation between reduced outdoor recreation, contact with nature and reduced environmental literacy is primarily based on single case studies and anecdotal evidence popularized by Richard Louv and the Nature-Deficit Disorder concept. The majority of research has been quantitative studies of specific environmental education programs that are short term, rely mostly on retrospective self-reports, and lack longitudinal programmatic evaluations (Wells and Lekies, 2006). Studies providing evidence for short-term associations between childhood nature contact and adult environmental outcomes are fairly numerous, but they are 10 to 15 years old and mostly correlational. The study by Hsu (2004) is more recent, but again only provides results related to short-term impacts (two months). In addition, the results were based on a sample of college students who took a formal environmental education class. There is still much to learn about the effect of childhood experience with nature and unstructured outdoor play on adult environmentalism (literacy and behavior).

Despite the lack of long-term experimental evidence, researchers have developed theoretical frameworks necessary to begin experimental and longitudinal research (Tidball & Krasny, 2011; Wimberley, 2009). These theoretical frameworks encourage nested research that studies humans within larger social and environmental systems. Additionally, researchers have developed instruments to assess the impacts of environmental education efforts on environmental quality (Duffin, Murphy, & Johnson, 2008; Short, 2009). Thus, one group of scholars is calling for a current and sustained research effort focused on establishing causality, utilizing experimental or quasi-experimental designs and prospective, longitudinal designs.

Others disagree (Courtney-Hall & Rogers, 2002; Maiteny, 2002), arguing that the behavior-modeling, causality approach creates epistemological problems. Instead of relying on positivistic, deterministic approaches to understanding environmental literacy, Courtney-Hall and Rogers (2002) emphasize the need for more interpretive research approaches and equal use of qualitative procedures. Thus, other scholars are interested in taking advantage of emerging methodologies that utilize a mixed methods research approach. Through the use of research techniques such as interviews and surveys, these researchers will be able to explore elements related to contact with nature and environmental literacy, and then quantify these elements. Concepts identified in interviews and findings of previous studies on environmental literacy (Wells & Lekies, 2006; Ewert, Place & Sibthorp, 2005; Lohr & Pearson-Mims, 2005; Roth, 1992) will be used to develop survey instruments; demographic questions and questions about the type of environmental settings primarily experienced during childhood (e.g., urban, rural) will also be included.

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Measurements of Progress

Development, implementation and refinement of reliable and valid scales that measure the diverse ways that children and adults think about and engage with nature, including environmental literacy, knowledge, attitudes and pro-environmental behaviors.
Peer-reviewed publications and professional conference presentations that document the role of park and outdoor recreation services in promoting environmental literacy among youth and adults

Short-term Outcomes

-of trends in unstructured outdoor play (i.e., amount of time spent in unstructured outdoor play).
Increased understanding of the strength of relationships between unstructured and structured (i.e., environmental education programs) contact with nature and environmental literacy.
Identification of critical developmental points that are more important than others in terms of childhood engagement with nature.
Increased understanding of the role of outdoor recreation on enhancing cognitive development and school performance among youth.

Long-term Impacts

Public awareness of environmental and ecosystem processes.
Public awareness of ecological footprint (individual consumption), including recreation-related footprints and impacts.
Citizens engage with natural resources, including participation in environmental education, interpretation and conservation stewardship programs.
National education curriculum includes experiential environmental education.
Greater support for environmental policies and natural resource conservation.
Development of environmental and outdoor programs targeted towards specific youth populations

Relevant References

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Bixler, R. D., Floyd, M. F., & Hammitt, W. E. (2002). Environmental socialization: Quantitative tests of the childhood play hypothesis. Environment and Behavior, 34(6), 795-818.

Chawla, L. (1999). Life paths into effective environmental action. Journal of Environmental Education, 31(1), 15-26.

Chawla, L., & Cushing, D. (2007). Education for strategic environmental behaviour. Environmental Education Research, 13(4), 437-452.

Courtney-Hall, P. & Rogers, L. (2002). Gaps in mind: Problems in environmental knowledge-behaviour modeling research. Environmental Education Research, 8(3): 285-297.

Faber Taylor, A., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (2002). Views of nature and self-discipline: Evidence from inner city children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22, 49-63.

Faber Taylor, A. F., Wiley, A., Kuo, F. E., & Sullivan, W. C. (1998). Growing up in the inner city: Green spaces as places to grow. Environment and Behavior, 30(1), 3-27.

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