Community Resilience & Vitality

According to the American Institute of Architects (AIA), vibrant public spaces encourage interpersonal interaction, collective engagement in community events and civic participation (AIA, 2007). In the outdoor recreation field, the vibrancy construct is not well developed but it is thought to foster resilience and promote sustainable communities (McManus et al., 2012). Resilience is a reflection of a system's overall health and sustainability (Cumming et al., 2005). In the context of coupled social-ecological systems, resilience has been defined as, the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks (Forbes et al., 2009, p. 22041). The idea of resilience in a coupled social-ecological system is associated with adaptive renewal and sustainability rather than stability or a static, unchanging system (Gunderson and Holling, 2002). 

Magis (2010) synthesized literature and convened a roundtable process with 60 natural resource and community development professionals to develop a definition of community resilience. They identified seven characteristics of community resilience (e.g., community resources, collective action, strategic action) and offered the following definition of community resilience.

“…The existence, development, and engagement of community resources by community members to thrive in an environment characterized by change, uncertainty, unpredictability, and surprise. Members of resilient communities intentionally develop personal and collective capacity that they engage to respond to and influence change, to sustain and renew the community, and to develop new trajectories for the communities’ future.” (Magis, 2010, p. 402). 

Community resilience is a process that occurs as individuals, communities, and institutions interact across natural and built environments. Based on a synthesis of literature defining the resilience concept, Burkes and Ross (2013) identified 9 community characteristics (i.e., knowledge, skills and learning; leadership; values and beliefs; social networks, engaged governance; positive outlook; community infrastructure; diverse and innovative economy, and people-place connections) that are “drawn into combined influence” (page 14) through community agency and self-organization, to create community resilience. They also note that, “the resilience of individuals and households is linked to that of the community” (Berkes and Ross, 2013, p. 15). They suggest that community service projects, which community members select and design themselves, can be considered as resilience-building strategies. Participating in such projects “… empower the group or community through a series of small successes and learning experiences. Such processes build cohesion and a sense of community while achieving tangible outcomes such as infrastructure improvements and economic diversification …” (Berkes & Ross, 2013, p. 16).  Thus, measuring the degree to which outdoor recreationists become involved in their communities may be a useful index of whether involvement in outdoor recreation is contributing to future community resilience.

Current work and previous work related to vibrancy and resilience in a few key areas are highlighted in the following subsections.

Communities and change. A community's growth trajectory may change dependent upon unplanned (e.g., natural disasters) or planned events (e.g., policy change). Growth of a community or its ability to respond to change without negatively altering a desired growth pattern is at the heart of a vibrant community's resilience and ultimate survival and prosperity. The 21st century has illuminated that many natural resources are not renewable and can easily be compromised, placing the health and vibrancy of a community in jeopardy. 

After examining U.S. rural counties, (Reeder & Brown, 2005) concluded that areas dependent on recreation and tourism fared better than other rural counties on key social-economic indicators. Counties located near metropolitan areas or significant natural resources heightened most impacts in a positive direction. Reeder and Brown, and others who study amenity rich communities, attribute population and economic growth to natural resources for recreation, tourism, and housing choices. Gateway communities or towns and cities in the wildland-urban interface enjoy many benefits attributed to the natural resources nearby. A growing society of retirees and more professions that enable off-corporate or campus work environments is piquing the interest of urban dwellers to live where the natural resources are plentiful and of high quality, thereby offering outdoor recreation activities and lifestyles (Crompton, 2007). 

Economic vitality is a key component of change that is bolstered by green space. The distribution of urban green space can vary across neighborhoods and provides a reasonable proxy for a community’s socio-economic status (Bruton & Floyd, 2014; Vaughan et al., 2013). For example, green space projects can revitalize communities by creating green jobs, increasing property values, and improving public health (Branas et al., 2011; Kondo et al., 2015; Schilling & Logan, 2008). A study in Philadelphia found that views of local greened lots significantly decreased heart rates when compared to non-green lots, implying that reducing neighborhood blight can minimize stress and enhance human health (Kondo et al., 2015). Local property values also illustrate the economic impact of urban green spaces (Cho et al., 2006; Kovacs, 2012). In as study of property values in northern Los Angeles, Conway et al. (2010) observed that home prices in older urban communities were higher in neighborhoods with greening programs. They also recommend that future studies expand their analysis to include more attributes and values of green space—not just those centered on housing prices. A similar study in New York City compared neighborhood property values within multiple distances of community gardens. They found that gardens have significant positive effects on property values, especially in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Voicu & Been, 2008). These studies suggest that economic stability is closely associated with green space and outdoor recreation opportunities, cultivating a relationship that can lead to better community health outcomes.

Communities that recognize and plan for change are more likely to be resilient. Scientists and community outreach specialists, however, need to identify case studies and indicators that describe the substance of communities. They also need to model the processes by which change was managed and vibrancy and resilience were achieved (Bosselman, Peterson, & McCarthy, 1999).

Civic ecology and conservation recreation. As noted by Leopold (1938) and others (e.g., Scott, 1958), participation in outdoor recreation in and of itself is no guarantee that conservation will be accomplished, and could instead result in ecological damage and even loss of social capital through exclusion of some potential participants. Tidball and Krasny (2010) defined conservation activities that include a civic purpose as civic ecology practices (p. 1). They noted that, although often viewed as initiatives to improve a degraded environment, [these practices] also foster social attributes of resilient social-ecological systems, including volunteer engagement and social connectedness (Tidball & Krasny, 2010, p. 1). Civic ecology practices such as tree planning, habitat restoration and community gardening can occur across the rural-urban continuum (Krasny & Tidball, 2010, 2015; Krasny et al., 2014). Within the universe of civic ecology practices is a subset of nature-based activities that might be defined as conservation recreation activities. 

Conservation recreation occurs when participation in nature-based recreation activities foster broader outcomes purported to arise from civic ecology practices, including individual, community and ecological well-being. Cooper et al. (2015) highlight connections between nature-based recreation and one of these broader outcomes – participation in pro-environmental or conservation-oriented behavior. They found that individuals who engage in wildlife-dependent recreation activities were significantly more likely to engage in various forms of pro-environmental behavior, including supporting conservation policies, donating to conservation causes, enhancing wildlife habitat on public lands, and participating in environmental groups. Similar patterns have been observed in other studies (Larson et al., 2011; Teisl & O’Brien, 2003), highlighting the growing need for research that examines why these connections exist and how they can be promoted and leveraged to support healthy and sustainable communities.

Sense of place. The phrase “sense of place” encompasses a group of cognitions and affective sentiments people hold regarding a particular geographic locale (Farnum, Hall, & Kruger, 2005; Jorgensen & Stedman, 2001, 2006).  A conceptual framework integrating place-based concepts is emerging from the literature (Manzo & Devine-Wright, 2014). Two key components of sense of place are place meanings and place attachment. Place meanings are cognitive, descriptive, or symbolic statements about what kind of a place a setting represents. Place meanings can be derived from a variety of sources including interaction with the environment and the interconnectedness of environmental features, psychological developments, and sociocultural processes. Place attachment as the psychological, affective bond that an individual forms with a particular setting (Kudryavtsev et al. 2012b). These bonds are influenced by the values people ascribe to a place (i.e., place meanings). Anecdotal information suggests that outdoor recreation in a specific place can contribute to place meanings and subsequent place attachment. Quantitative research is needed to confirm the veracity of this belief in various context for outdoor recreation. 

Having urban community open spaces has been associated with reports of a strong sense of community, or perceptions of a healthier community among community residents (DeGraaf & Jordan, 2003; Furnham & Cheng, 2000; Kesebir & Deiner, 2008; Kweon, Sullivan, & Wiley, 1998; Peters, Elands, & Buijs, 2010; Francis, Giles-Corti, Wood, & Knuiman, 2012). There is evidence to suggest that people tend to prefer green spaces over paved spaces (Coley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1997), but the reasons for those preferences are not well understood. Research is needed to document the full range of benefits that neighborhood parks and natural areas provide, both as catalysts of social cohesion, and as providers of ecosystem services. 

Parks, natural areas, and other types of open space have the potential to create a sense of place that yields psychological and environmental stewardship benefits. Several studies have found a positive association between sense of place and pro-environmental behaviors (Vaske & Kobrin, 2001; Stedman, 2002; Walker & Chapman, 2003; Ryan, 2005; Halpenny, 2010; Hernandez et al., 2010; Scannell & Gifford 2010), leading to the research hypothesis that pro-environmental behaviors can be encouraged by getting people engaged in activities that elevate sense of place and place attachment (Walker & Chapman, 2003).

Repurposing outdoor spaces. Through the community change process, many remnants or overused parcels of land fall into disuse and may be left aside with diminished value. Community planners and park and recreation professionals are viewing sites formerly developed as housing, military installations, industrial corridors, landfills, or transportation lines as opportunities for redevelopment and the creation of new places for outdoor recreation and tourism. These redevelopment sites have been shown to revitalize natural habitats, sometimes with the original species, and mitigate urban sprawl by infilling in the core of a community rather than the edges. Repurposing of natural resources may be one of the prime examples of sustainable development and systems thinking.

Johnson, Glover, & William (2009) studied a landfill-to-park redevelopment through the views of a nearby neighborhood. The research illustrates that community planning is necessary to create sense of place in an abandoned site that is a threat to human health and quality of life. Klenosky, LeBlanc, Vogt and Schroeder (2008), along with Forest Service scientists and park managers, have studied several repurposing brownfields in Midwest and Eastern cities. These spaces integrate nature's resiliency with the human desire to recreate in a variety of outdoor spaces. Rail corridors converted into bike and walking trails is another example of repurposing industrial landscapes. Research has profiled the nature and level of use, as well as the importance of rail-trails to foster active transportation and physical exercise for residents and tourists of all ages.

Scholars also are beginning to investigate how outdoor spaces undergo spontaneous, unplanned repurposing, and what those changes imply for land stewardship and community vibrancy and resilience. Creation of outdoor spaces and sacred places (OSSP) is often the result of spontaneous, self-organizing acts that are motivated by stewards' sense of community and need for healing rituals, and are expressed through myriad relationships with nature (Roberts, 2002; Svendsen & Campbell, 2010; Tidball et al., 2010). As such, the emergence of OSSPs is part of a socio-ecological process of disturbance and resilience (Berkes & Folke, 1998, 2002; Stedman & Ingalls, 2013). Stewards use their immediate landscape act as a mechanism to foster collective resilience in the aftermath of a crisis (Tidball 2010; Tidball & Krasny, 2013). This "adaptive capacity" of environmental stewards is essential to a healthy society and to overall ecosystem function (Folke et al., 2003; Gallopin, 2006; Tidball and Krasny, 2007). 

The act of local OSSP creation and stewardship is an act fundamental to the healing process of those involved (Tidball et al., 2010). Studies of environmental volunteers find that stewardship activities help to lessen feelings of isolation and disempowerment and can strengthen neighborhood attachment (Townsend, 2006; Svendsen & Campbell, 2006; Comstock et al., 2010). Research on urban greening has shown that different benefits from these projects are derived at the individual, organization, and community levels (Westphal, 2003, 1999; Wolf, 2008). Studies of community gardeners have found that at the individual level, stewardship can promote relaxation, mitigate stress, create self-confidence, and strengthen sense of control and self-efficacy; at the collective level it can help to establish trust, strengthen social cohesion, share knowledge, and leave a legacy (Baker, 2004; Dow, 2006; Glover et al., 2005; Saldivar-Tanaka & Krasny, 2004; Svendsen, 2009; Teig et al., 2009).

Furthermore, studies have pointed to the therapeutic and symbolic value of trees, treescapes, and other aspects of nature (Anderson, 2004; Jones & Cloke, 2002; Miller, 1997; Perlman, 1994; Tidball 2014). Plants, as well as interacting with plants (e.g., through gardening, tree planting), appear to aid in resistance and resilience through psychophysiological effects (Hartig et al., 1991; Heerwagen, 2009; Korpela & Ylen, 2007; Kuo, 2001; Kuo & Sullivan, 2001; Kweon et al., 1998; McCaffrey et al., 2010; Wells, 2003). Nature is also a crucial resource for communities recovering from disaster (Hull, 1992; Ottosson & Grahn, 2008).

Measurements of Progress

• Development, implementation and refinement of reliable and valid scales that measure the different components and contributors to community vibrancy and resiliency, including economic development, governance, civic ecology, conservation recreation, sense of place, environmental stewardship, and related concepts.

• Peer-reviewed publications and professional conference presentations that document the role of park and outdoor recreation services in promoting community vibrancy and resilience, particularly as it relates to transformative communities, economic development, sense of place, and repurposing outdoor spaces.

• Peer-reviewed publications and professional conference presentations that document long-term influences of early lifespan connections with nature, particularly in relation to environmental literacy and pro-environmental behaviors, including policy support and stewardship engagement.

Short-term Outcomes

• Increased understanding of the ecological, economic and social contributions of recreation to community vibrancy and resilience.

• Awareness among researchers and providers of standardized methods and instruments to measure community vibrancy and resilience related to outdoor recreation, parks and other green environments.

• Development of recreation planning documents incorporate resilience, vibrancy and recreation.

• Increased understanding of outdoor recreations role in larger socio-ecological systems in terms its contribution to human health, environmental literacy and community vibrancy and resilience.

Long-term Impacts

• Enhanced sense of place and public attachment to natural environment.

• Awareness among community leaders and entrepreneurs of the role of park and outdoor recreation services in promoting community vibrancy and resilience.

• Outdoor recreation enterprises contribute to communities' economic stability.

• Awareness among citizens of role of natural resource amenities and recreation service delivery systems on tax revenues. 

• Improved social networks and community ties from increased contact with community members during outdoor recreation.

• Increased work productivity. 

• Youth who become responsible outdoor recreationists and resource stewards.

• Sustainable and accessible outdoor recreation environments that lead to resilient communities and high quality of life.

• Citizens engage in pro-environmental behaviors.

• Increased public engagement and participation in park and natural resource-related decision making and policy development