This page documents the change in plant species in my Takoma Park, MD yard between the fall of 2017, when I started working on converting my yard, to the present (currently, the summer of 2023).
Sections on this page:
I use Douglas Tallamy's (2007, 66-70) pragmatic definition of what is, and is not, a "native plant" based on his concept of "let nature define nativity." Tallamy's definition is based on the following characteristics of a particular plant species, relative to a specific geographic area in which it is growing:
The plant co-evolved in North America with the insect and animal species in the specific geographic area in which it is now growing;
The plant provides important ecological services to many other insect and animal species in the local area (e.g., food, reproduction support);
The plant does not consistently displace (outcompete) other plants, in the local area, that provide these many ecological services (i.e., not "invasive").
For these reasons, I do not use artificial, political boundaries (e.g., Maryland) to define "native" and "non-native" nor do I exclusively rely on physiographic regions because Takoma Park, MD (the area in which my yard is located) exists right at the border of the piedmont and coastal plain. In all likelihood, there was an overlap of species, historically, between both areas. These facts, coupled with the lack of good historical records on what plants were growing in my immediate area, prior to European colonization, and climate change, which is forcing species migration, means that my definition of "native" is, as Tallamy stresses, a pragmatic one that directly supports increasing local biodiversity.
I also use Tallamy's (2007, 40-44) definition of a "keystone" plant species, which posits that "some species are more important to the sustainability of ecosystems than others." In other words, the loss of these keystone species would be far more likely to result in a collapse of an ecosystem than other, non-keystone, species. For a gardener, the message is clear: by quantity, most of the plants in a yard should represent a variety of keystone plant species.
Note: Tallamy does not define any keystone species that are grasses, rushes, sedges, ferns, or cacti (for the eastern US).
For instance, the nativity of Callirhoe (winecup) species east of the Mississippi River is questionable from a number of perspectives, but they’re officially "native" (according to Bonap) in places awfully close to the Mississippi River—Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas. Critically, the places in which Callirhoe are found, in these states, are similar to the forested areas found throughout the east into Maryland, as well as drier areas further west. Some Callirhoe species have long been naturalized into states further east, such as Pennsylvania and Virginia.
According to Bonap, Callirhoe bushii is “present” in the states of Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Kansas (see). (Note: Bonap doesn’t actually provide a native range, but other sources, such as NC State's Extension Office, do refer to these states as its “native” origin).
C. triangulata is similar to C. bushii in that Bonap doesn’t indicate its nativity to a specific part of the US, but its “presence” is in most of the southeast US (north, into North Carolina); many other sources do list this species as native to the southeast.
Bonap does indicate that C. involucrata is also native to the states of Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas (see). It lists this species as “native, but adventive” in some eastern coastal states such as Pennsylvania and Virginia.
But, to me, what’s most important is that in the DMV (the local area), Callirhoe provides important services to insects and animals that have long historical associations with the ecosystems in this area. Specifically, caterpillars of various Pyrgus (skipper) species use it as food as does Strymon melinus (gray hairstreak); native bees use it as a pollen and nectar source as does S. melinus; our local hummingbirds also visit its flowers.
I’ve also noted, at least in my yard, voles love to eat Callirhoe seeds. I remember coming across a family of babies that were all quietly and peacefully munching on these seeds, oblivious to my presence. (I don’t have voles in my yard, anymore, because a Cooper’s hawk ate them all).
Work cited: D. Tallamy. (2007). Bringing nature home: How you can sustain wildlife with native plants. Portland, OR: Timber Press.
The area in which I can establish plants in my yard (the area with soil) is 5,100 square feet. Here are some statistics on how this area changed:
Before
32 species representing 23 families; 56% native; 12 invasive species; 4 keystone species (all trees);
Only 5% of growth in yard below 7 feet consisted of native species; no keystone species were at this height.
After
265 species representing 82 families; 99% native; 0 invasive species; 53 keystone species (trees, shrubs, and forbs);
9x increase in species diversity;
3.5x increase in number of plant families represented;
1.7x increase in overall ratio of native to non-native plants;
Complete eradication of invasive species;
13x increase in number of keystone species.
98% of growth in yard below 7 feet consists of native species; about 33% of these plants are keystone species.
Of the three ways native plants become part of my yard — already present, direct sowing, or through pots/bare roots — here is how their origins break down:
17 species were already in my yard, before I started;
80 species were established by direct-sown seeds (primarily in late fall);
168 species were planted as plants in pots (mostly plugs) or as bare roots.
In the before and after sections
Colors: If the text is normal (no color), the species is native; if in orange, the species is non-native; if in red, the species is non-native and invasive.
In the after section, only
※ Previously present before intervention.
† Planted as direct-sown seed.
‡ Planted from pots or bare roots.
These species were already present before I began the native plant conversion process. At this stage, many of the trees in the yard were already native, but most of the other kinds of plants were not.
Aceraceae
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) — young tree (about 10 years old) retained, likely arrived, via a wind-blown samara; retained.
Aquifoliaceae
American holly (Ilex opaca) — young tree (about 10 years old), likely planted as a seed by an bird; retained.
Cornacea
Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) — mature tree (50+ years old); retained.
Fagaceae
Black oak (Quercus velutina) — young tree (about 7 years old), likely planted as a seed by an squirrel; retained.
Magnoliaceae
Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) — young tree (about 4 years old), that spontaneously sprouted from trunk of mature tree that was cut down; retained.
Moraceae
White mulberry (Morus alba) — valid tree removal permit obtained from City of Takoma Park (this species is listed on City's "undesirable species list") and has since been removed.
Rosaceae
Japanese flowering cherry (Prunus serrulata hybrid) — retained, in part, due to City of Takoma Park's policy to preserve large, non-invasive, non-native trees.
Simaroubaceae
Tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima) — invasive, non-native tree was all over the yard (seedlings to young trees); all have been removed.
Ulmaceae
American elm (Ulmus americana) — healthy, mature tree (50+ years old); retained.
Caprifoliaceae
Weigela (Weigela hybrid) — very old shrub; retained.
Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) — invasive, non-native shrub was all over the yard; all have been removed.
Ericaceae
Deciduous azalea (Rhododendron molle hybrids) — very old shrubs; most retained (after all, Takoma Park is known as "Azalea City").
Garryaceae
Acuba (Aucuba japonica) — non-native planted extensively throughout the yard because of its shade tolerance; most have been removed.
Oleaceae
Forsythia (Forsythia suspensa hybrid) — non-native in many parts of the front yard that has since been removed.
Rosaceae
Bridalwreath spirea (Spiraea prunifolia) — non-native; removed.
Wineberry (Rubus phoenicolasius) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Amaryllidaceae
Field garlic (Allium vineale) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Asparagaceae
Hosta (Hosta hybrids) — most retained and move to different areas.
Creeping liriope (Liriope spicata) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Mondograss (Ophiopogon japonicus) — non-native; removed.
Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbellatum) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Asteraceae
Erigeron philadelphicus (Philadelphia fleabane)
Rosaceae
White avens (Geum canadense)
Indian strawberry (Potentilla indica) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Violaceae
Common blue violet (Viola sororia)
Cyperaceae
Eastern wood sedge (Carex blanda)
Poaceae
White grass (Leersia virginica)
Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi)
Arrow bamboo (Pseudosasa japonica) — invasive and non-native; removed.
Apocynaceae
Common periwinkle (Vinca minor) — invasive; removed.
Araliaceae
English ivy (Hedera helix) — invasive; removed.
Celastraceae
Wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunei) — invasive; removed.
Vitaceae
Porcelainberry (Ampelopsis glandulosa) — invasive; removed.
Aceraceae
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) ※
Freeman's maple (Acer x freemanii; hybrid of red and silver maples) ‡
Anacardiaceae
Shining sumac (Rhus copallinum) ‡
Annonaceae
Paw paw (Asimina triloba) ‡
Aquifoliaceae
American holly (Ilex opaca) ※
Betulaceae
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) ‡
Cornacea
Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) ※
Fabaceae
Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis) ‡
Fagaceae
Black oak (Quercus velutina) ※
Hippocastanaceae
Red buckeye (Aesculus pavia) ‡
Magnoliaceae
Sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana) ‡
Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) ※
Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) ‡
Oleaceae
Fringe tree (Chionanthus virginicus) ‡
Pinaceae
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) ‡
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) ‡
Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) ‡
Rosaceae
Carolina cherry laurel (Prunus caroliniana) ‡
Japanese flowering cherry (Prunus serrulata hybrid) ※
Choke cherry (Prunus virginiana) ‡
Southern crabapple (Malus angustifolia) ‡
Rutaceae
Hop tree (Ptelea trifoliata) ‡
Prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum) ‡
Ulmaceae
American elm (Ulmus americana) ※
Betulaceae
American hazelnut (Corylus americana) ‡
Calycanthaceae
Eastern sweetshrub (Calycanthus floridus) ‡
Caprifoliaceae
Weigela (Weigela hybrid) ※
Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) ‡
Celastraceae
American strawberry bush (Euonymus americanus) ‡
Clethraceae
Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia) ‡
Cornacea
Gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa) ‡
Ericaceae
Florida leucothoe (Agarista populifolia) ‡
Black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata) ‡
Deciduous azalea (Rhododendron molle hybrids) ※
Pinxterbloom azalea (Rhododendron periclymenoides) ‡
Plumleaf azalea (Rhododendron prunifolium) ‡
Rabbit-eye blueberry (Vaccinium virgatum) ‡
Euphorbiaceae
Alabama croton (Croton alabamensis) ‡
Garryaceae
Acuba (Aucuba japonica) ※
Grossulariaceae
Clove currant (Ribes aureum) ‡
Hamamelidaceae
Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) ‡
Hydrangeaceae
Smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens) ‡
Oakleaf hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia) ‡
Hypericaceae
Shrubby St. John's wort (Hypericum prolificum) ‡
Iteaceae
Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica) ‡
Lamiaceae
American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) ‡
Lauraceae
Spicebush (Lindera benzoin) ‡
Oleaceae
Devilwood (Cartrema americana) ‡
Rosaceae
Flowering raspberry (Rubus odoratus) ‡
Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) ‡
Running serviceberry (Amelanchier stolonifera) ‡
Canadian serviceberry (Amelanchier canadensis) ‡
Smooth rose (Rosa blanda) ‡
Rubiaceae
Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) ‡
Salicaceae
Pussy willow (Salix discolor) ‡
Thymelaeaceae
American leatherwood (Dirca palustris) ‡
Viburnaceae
American elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) ‡
Blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium) ‡
Nannyberry (Viburnum lentago) ‡
Acanthaceae
Wild petunia (Ruellia humilis) †
Smooth wild petunia (Ruellia strepens) †
Alismataceae
American water plantain (Alisma subcordatum) †
Delta arrowhead (Sagittaria platyphylla) ‡
Amaryllidaceae
Canadian garlic (Allium canadense) †
Nodding onion (Allium cernuum) ‡
Prairie onion (Allium stellatum) ‡
Apiaceae
Honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis) †
Yellow pimpernel (Taenidia integerrima) †
Golden alexanders (Zizia aurea) †
Apocynaceae
Eastern bluestar (Amsonia tabernaemontana) ‡
Spreading dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium) ‡
Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) ‡
Common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) †
Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) ‡
Spider milkweed (Asclepias viridis) †
Araceae
Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum) ‡
Water arum (Calla palustris) ‡
Araliaceae
Spikenard (Aralia racemosa) ‡
Aristolochiaceae
Canadian wild ginger (Asarum canadense) ‡
Little brown jug (Hexastylis arifolia) ‡
Asparagaceae
Wild hyacinth (Camassia scilloides) ‡
Hosta (Hosta hybrids) ※
Curve-leaf yucca (Yucca gloriosa var. tristis) ‡
Asteraceae
White snakeroot (Ageratina altissima) †
Pale Indian plantain (Arnoglossum atriplicifolium) †
Swamp marigold (Bidens aristosa) †
Decurrent false aster (Boltonia decurrens) †
Green and gold (Chrysogonum virginianum) ‡
Mistflower (Conoclinium coelestinum) †
Lance-leaf coreopsis (Coreopsis lanceolata) †
Prairie coreopsis (Coreopsis palmata) †
Pale purple coneflower (Echinacea pallida) †
Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) †
Erigeron philadelphicus (Philadelphia fleabane) ※
Robin's plantain (Erigeron pulchellus) ‡
White wood aster (Eurybia divaricata) †
Large-leaved aster (Eurybia macrophylla) †
Coastal plain Joe Pye weed (Eutrochium dubium) ‡
Sweet Joe Pye weed (Eutrochium purpureum) †
Stiff sunflower (Helianthus pauciflorus) †
False sunflower (Heliopsis helianthoides) †
Cynthia (Krigia biflora) ‡
Prairie blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya) ‡
Golden ragwort (Packera aurea) ‡
Roundleaf ragwort (Packera obovata) ‡
Bearsfoot (Polymnia uvedalia) †
White rattlesnake-root (Nabalus albus) †
Yellow coneflower (Ratibida pinnata) †
Giant coneflower (Rudbeckia maxima) ‡
Black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia fulgida) ‡
Black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta) †
Bown-eyed susan (Rudbeckia triloba) †
Cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum) †
Prairie dock (Silphium terebinthinaceum) ‡
Blue-stemmed goldenrod (Solidago caesia) ‡
Cliff goldenrod (Solidago drummondii) ‡
Zig-zag goldenrod (Solidago flexicaulis) ‡
Early goldenrod (Solidago juncea) †
Showy goldenrod (Solidago speciosa) ‡
Elm-leaved goldenrod (Solidago ulmifolia) ‡
Heart-leaved aster (Symphyotrichum cordifolium) †
Heath aster (Symphyotrichum ericoides) †
Smooth blue aster (Symphyotrichum laeve) †
Calico aster (Symphyotrichum lateriflorum) †
New England aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae) †
Aromatic aster (Symphyotrichum oblongifolium) ‡
Wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia) †
Upland ironweed (Vernonia glauca) ‡
Giant ironweed (Vernonia gigantea) ‡
Balsaminaceae
Pale jewelweed (Impatiens pallida) †
Berberidaceae
Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) ‡
Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) ‡
Boraginaceae
Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum) †
Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica) ‡
Fernleaf phacelia (Phacelia bipinnatifida) †
Buxaceae
Allegheny pachysandra (Pachysandra procumbens) ‡
Celastraceae
Running strawberry (Euonymus obovatus) ‡
Campanulaceae
American bellflower (Campanula americana) †
Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) †
Great blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica) †
Colchicaceae
Large-flowered bellwort (Uvularia grandiflora) ‡
Commelinaceae
Virginia spiderwort (Tradescantia virginiana) ‡
Crassulaceae
Woodland stonecrop (Sedum ternatum) ‡
Fabaceae
Blue wild indigo (Baptisia australis) ‡
Showy tick-trefoil (Desmodium canadense) †
Trailing lespedeza (Lespedeza repens) ‡
Maryland senna (Senna marilandica) †
Goat's rue (Tephrosia virginiana) †
Geraniaceae
Wild geranium (Geranium maculatum) ‡
Hypericaceae
Spotted St. John's wort (Hypericum punctatum) †
St. Andrew's cross (Hypericum hypericoides) ‡
Iridaceae
Blue flag (Iris versicolor) ‡
Crested iris (Iris cristata) ‡
Stout blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium angustifolium) ‡
Lamiaceae
Anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) ‡
Yellow giant hyssop (Agastache nepetoides) †
Downy wood mint (Blephilia ciliata) ‡
Hairy wood mint (Blephilia hirsuta) †
Stoneroot (Collinsonia canadensis) ‡
Bradbury's monarda (Monarda bradburiana) ‡
Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) †
Beebalm (Monarda didyma) ‡
Obedient plant (Physostegia virginiana) ‡
Hoary mountain mint (Pycnanthemum incanum) ‡
Clustered mountain mint (Pycnanthemum muticum) ‡
Slender mountain mint (Pycnanthemum tenuifolium) ‡
Hairy Mountain Mint (Pycnanthemum verticillatum) ‡
Lyre-leaf sage (Salvia lyrata) †
Hoary skullcap (Scutellaria incana) ‡
Heartleaf hedgenettle (Stachys cordata) ‡
American germander (Teucrium canadense) ‡
Liliaceae
Trout lily (Erythronium americanum) ‡
Loganiaceae
Indian pink (Spigelia marilandica) ‡
Malvaceae
Bush's poppy-mallow (Callirhoe bushii) †
Purple poppy-mallow (Callirhoe involucrata) †
Clustered poppy-mallow (Callirhoe triangulata) †
Swamp rose mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) †
Rose mallow (Hibiscus laevis) †
Glade mallow (Napaea dioica) †
Melanthiaceae
White trillium (Trillium grandiflorum) ‡
Yellow trillium (Trillium luteum) ‡
Toadshade (Trillium sessile) ‡
Montiaceae
Spring beauty (Claytonia virginica) ‡
Onagraceae
Sundrops (Oenothera pilosella) ‡
Papaveraceae
Dutchman's breeches (Dicentra cucullaria)
Celandine poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum)
Plantaginaceae
Turtle head (Chelone glabra) ‡
Foxglove beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis) †
Hairy beardtongue (Penstemon hirsutus) †
Culver's root (Veronicastrum virginicum) ‡
Polemoniaceae
Woodland phlox (Phlox divaricata) ‡
Garden phlox (Phlox paniculata) ‡
Creeping phlix (Phlox stolonifera) ‡
Sand phlox (Phlox bifida) ‡
Downy phlox (Phlox pilosa) ‡
Marsh phlox (Phlox glaberrima) ‡
Jacob's ladder (Polemonium reptans) †
Polygonaceae
Woodland knotweed (Persicaria virginiana) †
Pontederiaceae
Pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata) ‡
Primulaceae
Fringed loosestrife (Lysimachia ciliata) ‡
Ranunculaceae
Doll's eyes (Actaea pachypoda) ‡
Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) ‡
Tall thimbleweed (Anemone virginiana) ‡
Rue anemone (Anemonella thalictroides) ‡
Wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) ‡
Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) ‡
Sharp-lobed hepatica (Hepatica acutiloba) ‡
Purple Meadow Rue (Thalictrum dasycarpum) ‡
Rosaceae
Goat's beard (Aruncus dioicus) ‡
Prairie cinquefoil (Drymocallis arguta) ‡
Woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca var. americana) ‡
Yellow avens (Geum aleppicum) †
White avens (Geum canadense) ※
American ipecac (Gillenia stipulata) ‡
Dwarf cinquefoil (Potentilla canadensis) ‡
Saururaceae
Lizard's tail (Saururus cernuus) ‡
Saxifragaceae
Heuchera (Heuchera americana 'Dale's strain') ‡
Hairy alum root (Heuchera villosa 'autumn bride') ‡
Heuchera hybrids ‡
Foam flower (Tiarella cordifolia) ‡
Foam flower (Tiarella cordifolia 'Running Tapestry') ‡
Scrophulariaceae
Early figwort (Scrophularia lanceolata) †
Late figwort (Scrophularia marilandica) †
Violaceae
Canada violet (Viola canadensis) ‡
Common blue violet (Viola sororia) ※
Cream violet (Viola striata) ‡
Poaceae
Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) ‡
River oats (Chasmanthium latifolium) †
Beak grass (Diarrhena obovata) †
Bottlebrush grass (Elymus hystrix) †
Virginia wild rye (Elymus virginicus) †
Nodding fescue (Festuca subverticillata) †
Fowl manna grass (Glyceria striata) †
White grass (Leersia virginica) ※
Marsh muhly (Muhlenbergia racemosa) †
Nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi) ※
Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) ‡
Prairie wedge grass (Sphenopholis obtusata) †
Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans) ‡
Prarie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis) ‡
Cyperaceae
Fox sedge (Carex vulpinoidea) †
Bracted sedge (Carex radiata) †
Brome-like sedge (Carex bromoides) †
Pointed broom sedge (Carex scoparia) †
Sprengel's sedge (Carex sprengelii) ‡
James' sedge (Carex jamesii) ‡
Eastern wood sedge (Carex blanda) ※
Seersucker sedge (Carex plantaginea) ‡
Rosy sedge (Carex rosea) †
Wood's sedge (Carex woodii) ‡
Globe flatsedge (Cyperus echinatus) †
Spike rush (Eleocharis acicularis) †
Bignoniaceae
Cross vine (Bignonia capreolata) ‡
Trumpet vine (Campsis radicans) ‡
Caprifoliaceae
Coral honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) ‡
Celastraceae
American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) ‡
Fabaceae
Wild kidney bean (Phaseolus polystachios) †
Gelsemiaceae
Yellow jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens) ‡
Hydrangeaceae
Wood vamp (Decumaria barbara) ‡
Passifloraceae
Yellow passionflower (Passiflora lutea) ‡
Rosaceae
Climbing wild rose (Rosa setigera) ‡
Ranunculaceae
Virgin's bower (Clematis virginiana) ‡
Vitaceae
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) ‡
Muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) ‡
Thelypteridaceae
New York fern (Amauropelta noveboracensis) ‡
Athyriaceae
Lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina) ‡
Dryopteridaceae
Marginal wood fern (Dryopteris marginalis) ‡
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides) ‡
Onocleaceae
Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) ‡
Ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) ‡
Osmundaceae
Cinnamon Fern (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum) ‡
Polypodiaceae
Resurrection fern (Pleopeltis polypodioides) ‡
Cactaceae
Eastern prickly pear (Opuntia humifusa) ‡