English 9B Glossary - Vocabulary Words
Seminal documents express the ideas and principles that shape our government. These texts include speeches, laws, Supreme Court decisions, and constitutional amendments—essentially, they are written works that have proven influential to our nation or prompted its development.
An example of a seminal document would be The Declaration of Independence.
A seminal document such as the Declaration of Independence is also a type of argumentative text. The Declaration's authors (including Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and future president John Adams) wrote it for a purpose, made claims, supported those claims with evidence, and crafted its content with an intended audience in mind.
The Declaration of Independence was written in 1776, nearly 250 years ago. As you read the document, remember that language changes over time. You will therefore see sentences with syntax (how words and phrases are arranged within a sentence) and punctuation that seem unusual today.
You will also come across words that appear to be misspelled. Here are two examples. Click on the link in each example to learn more.
He is...transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny....
He has...endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers....
The meanings of words like these can nearly always be determined by context clues or by looking up their definitions.
Purpose: Authors of a seminal document want their audience to understand why they are writing it, so they usually state their purpose plainly. A document's purpose is often placed in its opening of the text. What is the reason the document was written?
Claim: There is usually a strong tone of protest to seminal documents as they call out specific institutions or people. Within that protest is a call for institutional change which is explicitly stated. What do the authors of the document want to prove to their audience?
Evidence: Authors of seminal documents provide evidence to protest their call for change. What facts, observations, or documentation are used to support the argument's claim?
Audience: Seminal documents are typically calls for institutional change. Who do the authors hope to influence? Are there specific people or institutions called out?
The purpose of an argumentative text is to change the mind of its audience or convince it to accept a specific point of view.
Rhetoric is the ancient art of persuasion. Within rhetoric, there are rhetorical appeals authors employ to make their argument convincing and more attractive to their readers or audience. Authors employ rhetorical as they present evidence to support claims within an argument.
This is an appeal to credibility (believability). Authors use ethos when they refer to their expertise on a topic or refer to or cite other experts on the issue or subject. Authors might also refer to the reputation of their work, degrees, awards, or other things that highlight their accomplishments.
Example: Bianca's little sister, Zeva, is trying out for a local track team. Like Bianca, Zeva is a sprinter and runs the 100m and 200m sprints. Bianca notices that Zeva's form starting out of the blocks (at the beginning of the sprint) needs to be improved. Zeva is reluctant to take Bianca's advice. In a final attempt to convince Zeva to try her method, Bianca shows Zeva all the medals she won once her form improved. Bianca also called her college track coach, a former Olympic silver medalist in the 200m sprint, to confirm that her method is the best way to start the 100 m and 200 m sprints.
This is an appeal to emotions or feelings. Authors use pathos when they want to invoke a certain feeling or emotion that will get their audience to lean toward the authors' perspective on the issue. When appealing to emotions, authors might use emotionally charged words, visuals, sounds, or anecdotes.
Example: Denise wants a puppy. Her father tells her that puppies at the local pet store are too expensive. Denise knows her father loves animals. She decides to invite him to help her at the local animal shelter during the annual pet adoption drive. At the drive, she takes her dad to see a puppy she would like as a pet. While he plays with the puppy, Denise tells her father that the puppy was abandoned during winter, and because he is older, no one is showing interest in adopting him. She then adds that the pet adoption fee is only $10. Her dad begins feeling sympathetic and agrees to adopt the puppy.
This is an appeal to logic. Authors appeal to logos by using data, statistics, relevant evidence or examples, and any other forms of proof relevant to the topic or subject.
Example: Mateo's mother no longer allows him to play video games after school. She believes that they are a distraction and do not teach him any important skills. To convince his mother that video games are in fact useful, he explains that when he plays online, he is in a team and must collaborate and problem solve with others. He then shows her several research studies from well-known universities that discovered how video games not only boost teenagers' problem-solving skills but help them become better in math and working on teams.
An Argumentative Speech is a speech given to persuade an audience to consider their ideas, thoughts, or conclusion on a topic. This is different from other speech types, that might be given to encourage or give information.
Claim: The claim presents the speaker's stance on a topic or subject. The claim represents the central idea of the speech.
Support: The speaker provides reasons why the claim is right or reasonable. These reasons are then supported with evidence. Evidence can be facts, examples, or anecdotes.
Counterclaim: A speaker presents an assertion or claim that opposes the author's claim. This opposing claim can be disproven.
Concession: This is when the speaker demonstrates an understanding of the counterclaim.
Refutation (rebuttal): This is when the speaker disproves the counterclaim with evidence.
A counterclaim is when the speaker presents an opposing view or claim. That might seem counterproductive, but it is a very sound strategy. Counterclaims signal that the speaker has considered other points of view. Bringing those points up and addressing them shows that the speaker has put thought into the subject or topic discussed.
A counterclaim should be immediately followed by a concession, a statement that signals that the speaker understands what is about to be refuted. Concessions signal that the speaker acknowledges there is some merit in the opposing view. This tells readers that the speaker understands multiple viewpoints on the subject or topic.
In the refutation, the speaker explains why the counterclaim is not reasonable or right and is supported by evidence. A good refutation is fair and shows respect for an opposing point of view.
Understanding the occasion (when and why a speech is being given) and audience (who is being spoken to) of a historical speech will help you better understand how the speaker's use of rhetorical appeals may have been effective.
The occasion and audience of a speech impact both what the author says and exactly how he says it. The particular background of this speech influences which appeals will work, given the circumstances.
Diction (see Unit 1) refers to a speaker's or writer's choice of words. It is influenced by several factors, including the author's purpose and background. Diction may be an expression of everyday language, or it may arise from a particular academic, political, or technical setting. Particular words are also often chosen for their connotative meanings.
Figurative language (see Unit 1) is intended to create an association in the mind of the listener or reader that goes beyond the literal definition. It is used to create imagery, clarify concepts, and sharpen the meaning or importance of an idea.
Rhetoric is language chosen for its ability to persuade an audience. It can and often does include figurative language.
Writers of speeches and documents carefully select their words and phrases to craft meaning and tone.
Compare these two sentences:
Fellow citizens, although you are feeling joyful right now, many others are sad.
Fellow-citizens; above your national, tumultuous joy, I hear the mournful wail of millions!
Both sentences have the same meaning. Their tones, however, are quite different. The second sentence describes both joy and sadness far more effectively than the first.
The purpose is why the speaker is giving the speech. Here are some possible reasons:
in response to an event
to motivate or persuade individuals to believe in or carry out a certain idea
to clarify concepts or alleviate a growing problem or suggest a solution
As you think about a speaker's purpose, you might consider asking:
What is the speaker trying to accomplish? How do I know this?
The audience includes the intended and unintended listeners of the speech. The speaker may be talking to a specific group of people, but other people who are not in attendance may hear or read about the speech long after the speech was delivered.
As you think about the audience, you might consider asking:
Who does the speaker want to listen? Who else might hear this speech later? How do I know this?
The message is the speaker's central idea or ideas—there can be more than one in a speech. Speakers consider both their purpose and intended audience in order to craft their argument and message. The message must be presented in a way that suits the audience's interests, motivations, or desires for it to be effective and achieve the speaker's purpose.
As you think about the message, you might consider asking:
What does the speaker want the audience to do, think, or feel? How might effectively delivering this message help them achieve their purpose? How do I know this?
The claims are the positions or assertions the speaker makes in an address. There can be more than one claim in a speech. Speakers craft their claims to most effectively influence their audience. Effective claims are backed up with facts, data, and/or evidence.
Repetition is when you repeat a word for effect. Repetition is an effective technique because it
helps the audience remember important details.
creates a rhythmic effect that attracts the audience's attention.
Listing is when a speaker states their main points in a list, making them easier for the audience to remember. Listing is a technique speakers use to focus listeners' attention on an important part of an address (another word for speech).
Rhetorical techniques—like repetition and listing—help speakers appeal to their audience and achieve their purpose.
Anaphora is repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence.
An allusion refers to a well-known text in order to draw a parallel or comparison.
Speakers sometimes make statements that sound convincing but in fact contain faulty reasoning. These are logical fallacies—they don't make sense or are not logical when you really think about what they're trying to say.
Logical fallacies act as evidence to convince the audience of an idea. However, they don't actually provide strong support for the speaker's argument.
A speaker uses a false equivalence or false analogy when they compare two things and claim they are the same when they are not. This is usually based on one common trait that the speaker falsely presents as being exactly the same in both cases. For example:
Apples and pears are both fruit that can be red and green. Therefore, they must taste the same.
Although they may share the same colors and belong in the same food group, they are not the same. Apples and pears do not taste the same and have other distinct characteristics. Some politicians and media personalities frequently use false analogies.
A speaker uses a slippery slope fallacy when they suggest that if this one thing happens, all sorts of other terrible things will happen as a result of it. For example:
If we let the government prohibit one type of car because it's harmful to the environment, one day the government will prohibit all cars.
This is usually an appeal to people's fears and emotions. It can be effective even though it makes no logical sense.
A speaker makes a hasty generalization when they draw a conclusion without enough evidence. For example:
I can tell from our first meeting that this class is going to be a complete bore.
Think of this as "jumping to a conclusion." It can be effective rhetorically because it sounds like the conclusion is based on reasonable evidence.
Bandwagon appeals are similar to peer pressure—most everyone thinks or does this, so you should too. For example:
Every true American believes in personal freedom over all other laws.
Bandwagon appeals are effective persuasive fallacies to try to get the audience to join a cause or adopt a belief.
To closely examine the claims and counterclaims in a speaker's argument, you should consider each of its parts and answer questions about them.
A claim is a statement the speaker says is true but that can be debated. Arguments may have more than one claim:
What does the speaker believe to be true?
The evidence consists of the facts and examples presented to support and develop the claim:
What relevant examples, data, and facts does the speaker include to develop the claim?
The reasons develop the claim by explaining why the speaker believes it is true:
How do the reasons connect the claim to the evidence?
The counterclaim is a statement that opposes the original claim, and the rebuttal is a response to the counterclaim:
How does the speaker anticipate other possible arguments against their claim?
What reasons does the speaker include for why a counterclaim is invalid, meaning not logical or supported?
Parallelism is the arrangement of words using a similar structure or pattern, emphasizing a key point and making it memorable. Examples:
We need expanded rights, equal representation, and fair laws.
It is time to determine correct action, identify needed changes, and make tough choices.
An analogy is a comparison between two things meant to clarify an idea for the audience.
Author E.B. White, who wrote Charlotte's Web, made this analogy:
"Explaining a joke is like dissecting a frog. You understand it better but the frog dies in the process."
Rhetorical questions are asked to make a point without an expected answer. They may assume an answer or suggest that the answer is obvious. Examples include:
Are we too afraid to make this difficult choice?
If we start down this path, where will it lead?
Are we not all part of the human family?
State your claim.
Use textual evidence to support your claim and illustrate your reasoning.
Your original commentary should explain how the textual evidence supports the claim.
Figurative language and figures of speech help an author or speaker make their point clear to the audience. Some figurative language uses comparisons to clarify ideas:
Similes make comparisons by stating that something is like something else.
Metaphors compare unlike things by saying something is something else.
Authors or speakers also use other figures of speech to appeal to their audience:
Euphemisms are indirect words or expressions that are used as a substitute for direct language on sensitive or taboo topics.
Remember that these strategies help persuade the audience, emphasize key ideas, and make ideas memorable.
To write a rhetorical analysis, you first must get a sense of the ideas and characteristics of the text. Then, you will read a second time to more deeply analyze the argument.
First, read to
understand the author's point of view on the topic(s).
understand the author's purpose.
understand how the author introduces, develops, and draws connections between ideas or claims.
Then, read to assess the argument:
Is the supporting evidence relevant, sufficient, and valid?
How are rhetorical strategies used to advance the ideas or claims?
Is the rhetoric effective?
a precise claim
development of claim through evidence
an organization that establishes relationships between claims, evidence, and reasons
words and phrases that clarify the relationships among claims, evidence, and reasons
a concluding statement that supports the argument
Your claim should be precise in identifying the rhetorical strategy used, how it helps the author(s) advance a point of view or achieve a purpose, and whether it does this effectively.
Example: In "Declaration of Sentiments," Elizabeth Cady Stanton's use of allusion helps her make a convincing argument in favor of women's rights.
Your claim should be developed through the presentation of text evidence that is relevant and supports the claim. The author includes details to help the reader understand different points of the claim.
Example: After beginning with the claim that "all men and women are created equal," Stanton continues to mirror language of the Declaration of Independence as she describes the reasons women now demand equal rights.
The organization of your analysis should clearly establish the relationships between claims, evidence, and reasons. Your original commentary should make the connection between your claim and evidence clear.
Use words and phrases that clarify the relationships among claims, evidence, and reasons.
Your concluding statement should clearly support the claim and follow logically from the development of the argument.
Example: Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s use of allusion to the Declaration of Independence, a respected founding document of our country, strengthens her argument and provides a memorable and convincing frame in which to make her case.
Don't forget that you can go back and look at notes from the other Units!