English 9B Glossary - Vocabulary Words
Modern Translation of Romeo & Juliet - The play written in modern English! (With side-by-side comparisons!)
Shakespeare used a lot of creative language in his plays. One strategy is to think carefully about the connotative meanings and figurative meanings of specific words or phrases.
Connotative meanings are the implied meanings or feelings that a word creates in the reader. For example, the word snoop creates a different feeling than observe. While both words mean to look at something, snoop creates a feeling of secrecy or dishonesty.
Figurative meanings convey an idea that is different from the literal meaning. Consider the statement "Life is a roller-coaster." This is meant to convey the idea that we experience a variety of emotions in life, like how a variety of emotions are experienced when riding a roller-coaster.
Context usually refers to the meaning of nearby words or the meaning of a text overall. To help you determine what a word or phrase means, look for clues near it that reveal
its definition
a restatement of the same idea
an example
a synonym or antonym
Context clues may not provide the precise meaning of a word, but they can allow readers to get the gist of what they are reading.
If you cannot determine the precise meaning of a word from the context, look at the section as a whole and ask yourself: Do I understand what is happening here even if I don't know the precise meaning of this word?
(If you feel lost about Context Clues, try visiting the English 9A site for extra notes!)
It briefly retells the story in your own words.
It includes only key ideas and information.
It leaves out minor details.
It is objective or does not include your opinion.
It maintains the meaning of the original text.
Complex characters is the name for a category that we can sort story characters into. These are key characteristics of complex characters:
They display a variety of traits, roles, and motivations.
Their motivations, including conflicting motivations, can move the plot forward.
They are developed through details that reveal their words, thoughts, and actions.
Basically, complex characters are deep, have lots of personality and background information, and are important enough to be involved in the plot of a story.
Analyzing characters' language—the words they say and how they say them—is one way to determine their motivations.
To analyze a character's motivations through their language, look for details that reveal what a character
is often talking about or mentioning.
is really trying to convey when they use figurative language or words with strong connotations.
is feeling about an event or another character.
The characters in a drama or play may have different motivations. For example, one character may be motivated by love while another is motivated by revenge. If you notice two very different characters in a drama or play—pay attention. The author may be highlighting one character's attitudes and motivations by contrasting them with those of another character.
Remember that contrast = differences.
A character whose personality and behavior contrast sharply with a main character is called a character foil. Authors create character foils to reveal or emphasize the main character's qualities and traits.
Remember that contrast = differences.
Remember, an inference is a conclusion readers make based on textual evidence, or story details, and their own background knowledge. Readers can make inferences about characters based on their words and behavior.
As you read, look for details like these to support your inferences about a character:
the character's actions and behaviors
the character's private speech (their inner thoughts)
the character's public speech (their interactions and dialogue with other characters)
One strategy that can help you to comprehend a complex text, like Romeo and Juliet, is to reorder sentences with unusual structures. Shakespeare often uses inversion in his sentences, meaning he reverses the normal order of words.
To use this strategy, read a line from a character's dialogue. Then, determine how the words in this line could be reordered to be clearer. Look at this example:
Inverted line: To me alone there came a thought of grief
Reworded line: A thought of grief came to me alone
The Capulets
SAMPSON: servant to the Capulets
GREGORY: servant to the Capulets
TYBALT: nephew of Lady Capulet
CAPULET: head of the Capulet family
LADY CAPULET: wife of Capulet
ROSALINE: niece of Capulet and Romeo's first love
The Montagues
ABRAHAM: servant to Montagues
BALTHAZAR: servant to Romeo
BENVOLIO: nephew of Montague and friend of Romeo
MONTAGUE: head of the Montague family
LADY MONTAGUE: wife of Montague
ROMEO: son of Montague
Others
PRINCE ESCALUS: prince of Verona
Your analytical paragraph must begin with a precise claim. You may have written and developed claims for other arguments or assignments.
Review these characteristics of an effective claim:
It is clear, focused, and specific.
It is arguable, which means there will be alternative claims to the one you introduce.
It can be supported by strong and thorough textual evidence.
LADY CAPULET: wife of Lord Capulet
JULIET: daughter of Lord Capulet
NURSE: personal servant and guardian of Juliet
PARIS: a young count who wishes to marry Juliet
Once you have introduced an effective claim, you'll need to support your claim with textual evidence and commentary.
Your paragraph should contain these three parts:
a clear and precise claim about two of Romeo's motivations
textual evidence that supports this claim
commentary that explains how the evidence you selected supports your claim
Keep in mind that when you include commentary to explain your evidence, you'll draw your own original conclusions about how the evidence you selected proves your claim.
You will use textual evidence to support your claim. Textual evidence can take the form of paraphrased information or a direct quotation from the text. You can use colons to introduce direct quotes into your writing. A colon serves as a signal that an example or explanation will follow.
Example: In Act 1, Scene 1, Lord Montague describes Romeo's worrisome behavior: "Away from light steals home my heavy son And private in his chamber pens himself."
The first part of the sentence (highlighted in blue) tells us what happened in the text. The second part (in yellow) gives us the quote that supports the statement of what happened: it shows us the proof.
An author's method of describing a character by making direct statements about the character's personality and appearance.
Example: Jill is a kind person who cares for her friends.
See below for comparison with indirect characterization.
An author's method of revealing what characters are like through their speech, actions, thoughts, and interactions with other characters.
Example: One of Jill's friends needed a ride home, and she offered to take them without hesitation. "Of course I'll take you," she said. "What are friends for?"
See above for comparison with direct characterization.
CAPULET: Juliet's father, who hosts the party
TYBALT: Lord Capulet's hot-headed young nephew, who hates the Montagues
ROMEO: attending the party in disguise with his friend Benvolio
JULIET: Lord Capulet's daughter, who is supposed to meet Paris, a suitor, at the party
Juliet's NURSE: her friend and advisor
Unnamed servants and party guests
A counterclaim is a claim made to rebut (to argue again) a previous claim.
Ask yourself: If someone felt the opposite way of what I'm writing, what points might they try to make? That's the easiest way to come up with a counterclaim. Sometimes you can find counterclaims by looking at other people who write about your topic.
By explaining what is valid or not valid about the point someone might make on the opposing side, you can create a counterclaim:
Acknowledge any parts of the counterclaim that does make sense, if there are any.
State the part that is incorrect or does not make sense.
Refute (explain why it doesn't make sense) the counterclaim.
Reinforce why your points make more sense instead.
Follow these steps to organize your paragraph:
Make a claim and develop it with evidence and reasoning.
Address a counterclaim and follow it with a refutation.
Use transitions throughout your paragraph to connect your claims, evidence, reasoning, and counterclaims.
There are many ways in which authors can build a feeling of tension in a text. Some of these strategies include:
changing the pacing through descriptions of conflict between characters, such as the conflict between the Montague and Capulet families in Romeo and Juliet
the use of dramatic irony (see next section), where the reader or audience knows something that the characters do not
contrasting (showing differences between) ideas, where the reader can see the difference between things going well and things going badly, or the difference between what could be versus what is happening in the story itself.
For more information about building tension, please see notes on Tension (Basics) from ENG 9A, Unit 1.
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or reader knows something important that some characters in the text do not know.
Dramatic irony may lead to the characters making decisions that the reader knows are unwise or based on incomplete or incorrect information. This can lead to a feeling of tension in the reader.
Example: Think of when people watch horror movies. When the characters make decisions that aren't smart that leads to their demise, that evokes a response in the viewer - who knows better and can see what is about to happen.
A soliloquy is a speech in which a character, usually alone on the stage, reveals his or her private thoughts. This kind of dramatic speech allows the audience to learn something about a character that other characters do not know.
An aside is a short speech delivered while other characters are on stage, but it is understood that only the audience hears what is said.
Soliloquies and asides are different from monologues, long speeches that one character delivers as other characters listen. With soliloquies and asides, the audience learns something new, but the other characters do not.
BENVOLIO and MERCUTIO: Romeo's friends
ROMEO: a Montague, newly in love with Juliet, who is a Capulet JULIET: Lord Capulet's daughter, newly in love with Romeo but informally engaged to Paris, a young nobleman
Juliet's NURSE: Juliet's friend and advisor
FRIAR LAURENCE: a priest who is Romeo's mentor and confidant
Transitional phrases can function as different parts of speech and serve to add more meaningful information to your writing.
Noun phrases name, describe, or limit other nouns or pronouns: Juliet, the only daughter, is expected to marry well.
Verb phrases modify or limit actions and states of being: Having said farewell, Juliet turned to go back into the house.
Adjectival phrases modify nouns and tell how many, which ones, or what kind. Only the dancers invited to the party may stay.
Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, telling when, how, and why something happened. Romeo hid in the shadows when Juliet appeared.
For more information on types of phrases, see the Grammar stuff page, or these grammar notes from English 9A.
Other types of transitional phrases you may wish to use in your writing include:
Participial phrases, which use verb parts with other words to modify other sentence elements: The nurse, insistently calling from the house, interrupts the couple's conversation.
Prepositional phrases, which combine a preposition and object to modify other sentence elements: Romeo did not let the garden walls keep him away from Juliet.
Absolute phrases, which modify an entire sentence: Their plans made, Juliet and Romeo parted till morning.
For more information on types of phrases, see these grammar notes from English 9A.
Writers choose transitions carefully to indicate a logical relationship between or among ideas. Transitional words and phrases can indicate these relationships, among others:
Cause and effect (because, since)
Sequence (first, then, later)
Comparison (in the same way, likewise)
Contrast (however, although)
Addition (moreover, also)
Examples (for example, such as)
Choose the transition that makes sense as you help readers make connections in your writing and follow your argument.
Key characteristics of theme:
It is a broad, universal message that can be applied to all readers.
It is usually not directly stated but is related to what occurs in the text.
It is developed through details over the course of the text.
A single text can have multiple themes that are developed through the characters, events, and other details.
For more information about theme or how to find it in a text, see notes from ENG 9A.
One way that authors develop theme is through characters. Watch for details that reveal theme in the following ways:
Major contrasts (differences) in characters' beliefs or in plot events might reveal themes of conflict. For example, in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo and Juliet's love for each other stands in sharp contrast to the hate between the Montagues and Capulets (their families).
Characters' choices—especially unwise choices—might reveal "lessons" to the reader that reflect themes. For example, Romeo and Juliet's decision to marry despite their families' feud develops themes about the power of love and loyalty.
MERCUTIO: Romeo's close friend
BENVOLIO: Romeo's friend and relative
ROMEO: the son of Montague in love with Juliet Capulet
NURSE: Juliet's caretaker
PETER: the servant of Juliet's nurse
Parallel plot lines are those that develop alongside (side-by-side), or parallel to, the main plot line. Parallel plot lines usually share a common character or theme, and events from the parallel plots tend to complicate things in the main plot. Parallel plot lines often merge at the climax of the story.
Parallel plot lines often serve important functions in a text. In addition to developing theme, parallel plots often create or enhance effects such as mystery, tension, or suspense.
speech—what they say in conversation (or monologues)
thoughts—what they express in soliloquies and asides
actions—what they do, sometimes described in stage directions
motivations—why they say something or take action
Complex characters can have conflicting motivations, which cause them to express different thoughts and take various actions. These conflicting motivations create tension and conflict that move the plot forward and develop themes.
Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally. For example, Romeo uses hyperbole when describing Juliet's beauty, saying the "brightness of her cheek would shame those stars."
A metaphor shows how two dissimilar things are alike in a meaningful way. For example, Romeo, seeing Juliet in her window, compares her to the sun: "But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? / It is the East, and Juliet is the sun."
Personification: attributing human characteristics to something nonhuman. For example, Romeo personifies music by giving it a tongue: "let rich music's tongue Unfold the imagined happiness."
A euphemism is when a mild or indirect word or phrase is substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant. For example, calling Romeo and Juliet "star-crossed lovers" is a euphemism. It is a softer, gentler way of saying that they are cursed with misfortune or fated to have bad luck.
For more examples or definitions of figurative language, please see this list from English 9A.
Love and passion can be a driving force for action, regardless of consequences.
Competing motivations can lead to conflict.
Conflict creates tension within relationships.
BENVOLIO: Romeo's friend and cousin
MERCUTIO: Romeo's friend and kinsman of the Prince
TYBALT: nephew of Lady Capulet
ROMEO: son of Montague, secretly married to Juliet Capulet
PRINCE: Prince of Verona and kinsman of Mercutio
LADY CAPULET: Juliet's mother and Capulet's wife
Generally, characters' motivations drive their actions and interactions with other characters.
The effect or consequences of these actions and interactions can reveal the message, or the theme.
As readers, we can consider our own perspectives on these characters and their actions. We can think about whether we agree or disagree with the way they interact with other characters. Ultimately, as we consider the theme in a text, we can decide how we understand that message in our own lives.
Remember that connotation is the implied or suggested meaning of a word and the mood or feeling that word creates. When a character uses a series of words with connotations that create a specific mood, it often offers insights into the character's state of mind.
Language can also impact meaning by developing important themes. For example, the many metaphors in Romeo and Juliet can provide important clues to developing themes about love and conflict. Juliet's oxymorons, for example, are metaphors that compare her beloved Romeo to a dragon and a tyrant. These metaphors reveal some of the conflict that arises for Juliet in her love for Romeo.
ROMEO: the son of Montague, in love with Juliet Capulet
FRIAR LAURENCE: a monk and friend to both Romeo and Juliet
NURSE: Juliet's caretaker
Themes are often developed through character interactions, which also help drive the plot forward.
In a novel or short story, authors can use narrators to describe their characters' thoughts, feelings, and motivations. Playwrights, however, must rely on indirect characterization (see above for more info). Remember that indirect characterization reveals character through the character's speech, actions, and interactions with others. How a character interacts with other characters can reveal a lot about them.
As you read, think about what is being revealed about a character based on how they interact with others.
JULIET: daughter of Lord Capulet, now wife to Romeo
FRIAR LAURENCE: a monk and friend to both Romeo and Juliet
PARIS: a young count and kinsman of the Prince; wishes to marry Juliet
LORD CAPULET: head of the Capulet family and Juliet's father
LADY CAPULET: wife of Lord Capulet
Use this organizational structure:
Make a claim that compares how Romeo's and Juliet's interactions with the friar advance the plot and develop a theme.
Include textual evidence that supports the claim.
Include commentary that explains the evidence.
Here are some transitional words and phrases to consider:
therefore, thus, consequently
furthermore, in addition, also
however, on the other hand, in contrast
similarly, likewise, in the same way
for example, in particular, in fact
Many stories, whether presented in books, on stages, or on screens, are drawn from older stories. In this way, the older stories serve as source material.
These elements are often drawn from older source material:
the events of the plot
types of characters
universal themes and messages
Themes can be timeless; in other words, a theme that was relevant many years ago may still be relevant today. Authors revisit these themes and transform them, which means they make the theme relevant for a new audience or include a new perspective.
Style in writing is the particular and unique way that an author uses language to convey ideas. A writer's style varies to fit the task, purpose, and audience.
To convey different writing styles, writers make choices about language features, including the following:
mechanics (punctuation, capitalization, and spelling)
diction (word choice)
sentence structure (how you put your words together) and length
Formal writing choices include the following:
avoiding slang, contractions, and other informal diction
using first-person pronouns such as I infrequently, if at all
writing complete sentences rather than sentence fragments
crafting sentences that use clauses and phrases to modify and explain ideas
Another feature of academic/formal writing is that it generally has an objective tone. When writing is objective, it is free from personal opinions or judgments. A writer's tone is the attitude the writer takes toward the subject and the reader.
In academic writing, an objective tone is expected. It presents the writer as serious and suggests the writer is knowledgeable enough (knows enough) to write about the subject.
Example: Read the two sentences below. Which sentence maintains an objective tone?
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet conveys universal messages about love and conflict.
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet gets produced and filmed all the time because it's just so sad.
The first sentence is objective because it does not contain judgment or personal opinions. The second sentence is less objective because it describes the film as sad.
Dramatic irony:
is a form of irony expressed through the structure of a story or play.
allows the audience or reader to know or understand something the characters do not.
gives the audience an awareness that can give characters' words and actions in a situation a different meaning.
Dramatic irony is a key to the suspense in horror stories. A frightened teenager runs into a house and bolts the door behind her. She's safe at last from an intruder. What the audience knows—but the teenager does not—is that the intruder is lurking in the next room. The teenager has just locked herself in the house with him.
Dramatic irony increases tension in many adventure stories. A shipwrecked family builds a boat and sets sail, at last, for home. What the audience knows—but the family does not—is that a tropical storm is brewing, and they are sailing directly into its path.
Dramatic irony can reveal differences in characters' understandings of events. When one character knows something that another does not, it can create or reveal conflict.
Dramatic irony can also impact characters' actions. If they do not have the same information the audience does, a character may make decisions that lead to tragedy or more conflict. These consequences can serve as a message of warning to a reader or audience. This message is often the story's theme.
PARIS: a nobleman who believes he was engaged to marry Juliet
ROMEO: a Montague, secretly married to Juliet, who is unaware that Juliet's death is not real
BALTHASAR: a Montague servant
FRIAR LAURENCE: the priest who gives Juliet a potion to help her fake her death
JULIET: a Capulet, secretly married to Romeo, who appears dead after drinking a potion
PRINCE: the ruling prince of Verona
CAPULET: Juliet's father
LADY CAPULET: Juliet's mother
MONTAGUE: Romeo's father
Include:
a claim about how dramatic irony shapes and refines a theme.
textual evidence that illustrates the dramatic irony and commentary that explains how this is impactful.
textual evidence that supports the claim of how dramatic irony shapes and refines a theme and commentary that explains how this evidence shapes and refines a theme.
a concluding statement that follows from the claim, evidence, and commentary analysis.
An effective conclusion
references the claim without being repetitive.
clearly follows from and supports the information presented in the essay.
explains the significance of the essay's topic and ideas.
closes the essay while maintaining tone and style.
Don't forget that you can go back and look at notes from the other Units!