Historical Development of Polish and Lithuanian Iconography

Medieval Origins (Byzantine Influence) – The tradition of icon painting in the Polish–Lithuanian lands dates back to the Middle Ages, when Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread into the region. Early icons followed the canonical Byzantine style, reflecting the heritage of Kievan Rus’ and Balkan Orthodoxy. For example, the revered Black Madonna of Częstochowa (though later altered in the West) likely began as a Byzantine icon (Hodegetria type) . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (which included much of present-day Belarus and Ukraine), local “Ruthenian” icons from the 14th–15th centuries closely imitated Byzantine models – featuring gilded backgrounds, stylized figures, and Church Slavonic inscriptions . These icons were seen not merely as art but as objects of veneration, integral to Orthodox liturgy and theology . Over time, Poland’s eastern borderlands became a cultural crossroads: situated at the juncture of the Latin West and the Orthodox East, the region’s iconography began absorbing diverse influences .

Western Influences (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque) – Starting in the late 16th and especially the 17th century, Western European art styles penetrated local icon painting, largely due to the Union of Brest (1596) which brought many Orthodox communities into communion with Rome (the Uniate Greek Catholic Church). This ushered in a “Latinization” of Eastern-rite art . Icons began to abandon the strict medieval conventions: the gold leaf background was often replaced by colored or natural backgrounds, figures were painted with greater realism and emotion, and scenes incorporated Renaissance perspective and Baroque ornamentation . Western pattern books (often Dutch or German) were used as models, introducing new iconographic subjects and naturalistic details alien to traditional Byzantine canon . By the 18th century, many icons in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth depicted Biblical events with fully Baroque aesthetics – architectural settings in linear perspective, dramatic lighting and anatomy, and even Latin inscriptions . This hybridity, though sometimes decried by Orthodox theologians, created a unique “Eastern Baroque” iconography that reflected the Commonwealth’s blend of cultures. The theological function of icons was sometimes obscured by these artistic changes (e.g. omission of identifying inscriptions, introduction of sculptural elements), leading modern scholars to note a loss of the timeless, symbolic character of Orthodox iconography in favor of transient realism .

Modern Era and Revival – In the 19th century, under tsarist Russian rule, the Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church was suppressed in most Polish–Lithuanian territories (e.g. 1839 in Belarus, 1875 in the Chełm region). Many churches were forcibly converted to Orthodoxy, and imperial Russian icon styles (themselves somewhat westernized by that time) were imposed. Nevertheless, in Austrian-ruled Galicia (southeast Poland/western Ukraine), the Uniate Church continued, producing folk icons and ornate iconostases in provincial Baroque styles. In the 20th century, especially after World War II and again after the fall of communism (1989–1991), there was a revival of interest in traditional iconography. Orthodox and Eastern Catholic communities in Poland and Lithuania worked to restore damaged icons and revive the icon-painting craft in its authentic form. The theology of the icon – articulated by writers like Léonid Ouspensky and Pavel Evdokimov – became better known in the region , inspiring a return to classical Byzantine–Slavic styles. Today, alongside conservation of historic icons, a new generation of iconographers (across Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and even Roman Catholic circles) continues the practice, ensuring continuity with the rich historical progression while respecting the theological canons of icon-writing.

A 15th-century icon of the Virgin Hodegetria (From Dolyna, now in the Sanok Museum) exemplifying the Byzantine style that influenced medieval Polish–Lithuanian icons . The Mother of God and Christ Child are depicted in the timeless frontal pose characteristic of Orthodox iconography.

Notable Iconographic Schools and Styles

Vilnius School (Grand Duchy of Lithuania)

Vilnius, the capital of the Grand Duchy, emerged as a significant center of iconography by the 16th century. The Vilnius School of icon painting developed in a milieu where Orthodox, Catholic, and Uniate influences intersected. Historical records speak of famous icons in Vilnius that were venerated by all three communities – for instance, the Vilnius Hodegetria icon of the Mother of God was esteemed by Orthodox, Greek Catholics, and Roman Catholics alike . This indicates how Vilnius icons often served a bridging role in a multi-confessional society. Stylistically, icons associated with Vilnius and Lithuania in the 16th–17th centuries combined traditional Eastern forms with Western techniques. Many were commissioned or renovated by Basilian monks after the Union of Brest. For example, icons at the Holy Trinity Monastery in Vilnius (which became a Uniate Basilian center) acquired Baroque halos, realistic faces, and even ornamental frames typical of Catholic art . At the same time, local artists maintained Eastern devotional themes – Christ Pantocrator, the Theotokos (Mother of God), and scenes of the liturgical feasts – thereby preserving the core iconographic canon within a changed aesthetic. The Vilnius School is characterized by this synthesis of East and West: one finds Byzantine-origin compositions rendered with soft modeling of figures, architectural backdrops with Renaissance proportions, and polychrome color palettes influenced by Western painting . Notable works include the now-lost Vilnius Hodegetria icon and the icons of the Vilnius Holy Spirit Monastery. These works underscore Vilnius’s role as “a main monastic and cultural centre” of the Uniate Church in the 17th century . In recent times, Lithuania’s scholars have paid special attention to this legacy – Dr. Tojana Račiūnaitė’s research on the Lukiškės Mother of God icon, for instance, revealed it to be a late-15th-century Smolensk Hodegetria type that was later overpainted in Vilnius with Baroque features . Such studies highlight how the Vilnius School contributed a distinct layer to Polish–Lithuanian iconography: Byzantine images “clothed” in Ruthenian and Latin artistic attire, reflecting the complex faith history of the region.

Supraśl Monastery Style (Polish–Lithuanian Orthodox Tradition)

Founded in 1498 in the Podlasie region of Poland, the Supraśl Monastery became one of the most important Orthodox centers in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . From its inception, Supraśl was connected to the broader Orthodox world – its founders (Prince Aleksander Chodkiewicz and Archbishop Joseph Soltan) obtained a Tomos from the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the monastery maintained “lively contacts” with Kyiv and Mount Athos . This made Supraśl a conduit for Byzantine artistic influence. In the 16th century, the monastery’s Church of the Annunciation was decorated with frescoes in the Palaiologan-Byzantine style (fragments of these 16th-c. murals are preserved today) . Supraśl’s greatest contribution is perhaps the Supraśl Icon of the Mother of God, a wonderworking icon commissioned in 1503 by Metropolitan Josyf Soltan as a replica of the 11th-century Smolensk Hodegetria . This icon, one of the most venerated in the region, drew pilgrims from both Orthodox and Catholic communities and was credited with miracles . Supraśl developed a local iconographic style blending strict Byzantine canon with Renaissance elements. Monastic iconographers adhered to Orthodox subjects and techniques (egg tempera on wood, flattened perspective), but after the monastery joined the Uniate fold in 1609, they also adopted decorative motifs of Western origin . For example, icons from Supraśl in the  XVII–XVIII centuries often feature Baroque-style foliage scrolls around the borders and more naturalistic anatomy, yet they retain Church Slavonic inscriptions and the traditional layering of the iconostasis tiers. The Supraśl Lavra’s scriptorium and printing house (active from the late 17th century) further influenced icon style by disseminating engravings and prints, which icon painters sometimes copied . Art historians consider Supraśl’s icons exemplary of the “Ruthenian Baroque” school – devotional images firmly rooted in Orthodox theology but “Latinized in form and content” due to the cultural borderland environment . The importance of the Supraśl Monastery style lies in its role as a regional standard-bearer of Orthodox art: it trained monks and artists, spread an artistic tradition across the Grand Duchy (many provincial churches in Belarus and Poland looked to Supraśl for models), and preserved a large collection of icons now displayed in the Supraśl Icon Museum . Today, the restored monastery (revived by the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church) continues this legacy through the Supraśl Academy, which teaches traditional icon painting on the monastery premises .

*17th-century “Adoration of the Magi” icon (iconostasis panel) from the Sanok Museum collection, originally from a Uniate church. Note the Baroque arch and naturalistic clothing of the kings – hallmarks of Latin influence on icons in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The Eastern sacred scene is depicted with Western depth and detail, reflecting the Supraśl and Uniate-era stylistic blend.

Uniate Iconography (Greek Catholic Eastern Rite)

After the Union of Brest (1596), a sizeable portion of the Orthodox in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered communion with Rome, forming the Greek Catholic or Uniate Church. Within this Uniate tradition, iconography underwent a remarkable transformation. Artists strived to “bridge Eastern and Western spirituality” by fusing Byzantine iconographic subjects with Catholic baroque aesthetics. This led to what scholars often call a synthesis or “mixed style”. Uniate icons retained Eastern holy images – Christ Pantocrator, the Theotokos, saints and feast scenes – and kept the basic iconostasis arrangement in churches, but their style became increasingly Westernized . Renaissance and Baroque influence can be seen in the introduction of realistic three-dimensionality and emotional expressiveness. For instance, 17th–18th century Greek Catholic icons from the Przemyśl and Lviv eparchies show the Virgin Mary and saints with softer shadowing and anatomical proportion than their medieval predecessors . Landscapes and architectural backgrounds – absent in strict Byzantine canon – appear frequently, borrowing perspective techniques from European oil painting . At the same time, Latin devotions affected subject matter: Uniate iconographers painted scenes like the Immaculate Conception and the Crucifixion in ways akin to Catholic imagery, and sometimes even produced standalone easel paintings for side altars. By the early 18th century, the Synod of Zamość (1720) formally approved certain Latinizations in liturgy; in art, this coincided with fully Baroque iconostases carved in wood and populated with icons that are virtually Western paintings (with voluminous drapery, dynamic poses, putti, etc.), except that they still served the Eastern liturgy. One hallmark of Uniate icons is the frequent inclusion of Latin inscriptions and dates, and even artist signatures – indicating a shift in how these images were perceived (more as artworks commissioned by patrons, less as anonymous sacred archetypes) . Despite Orthodox criticism that these adaptations diluted traditional icon theology , the Uniate style created a distinctive visual culture. It allowed Eastern-rite worshipers to express their identity in union with Rome yet loyal to Byzantine heritage, by adorning churches with art that was at once familiar and modern. Artifacts of this era include the gilded iconostasis of the Basilian church in Supraśl (18th c.), the icons of the Dukla and Peremyshl schools, and countless village church icons where Mary or Christ are depicted with a decidedly Western naturalism alongside Eastern saints painted in flatter style – sometimes on the same icon screen. Such blending was noted by contemporary observers: “in Central Europe (modern Poland, Western Ukraine, etc.), the influence of Western art led to naturalistic figures, Renaissance architecture in icons, and even the removal of the kovcheg (recessed icon panel) in favor of flat panels” . In summary, Uniate iconography of the 17th–18th centuries represents a creative fusion that mirrored the dual Eastern-Western character of the Greek Catholic Church. Today, many of these icons have been painstakingly conserved, and art historians treat them as a vital chapter in the evolution of European religious art – one where neither purely Eastern nor purely Western paradigms dominate, but a true blend born of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth’s unique religious landscape.

Carpathian/Podkarpacie Folk Icons (Łemkowszczyzna and Surroundings)

In the Carpathian highlands of southeastern Poland and western Ukraine, a distinctive folk iconographic style flourished among the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) communities – notably the Lemkos, Boykos, and Hutsuls. This Carpathian/Podkarpacie style is characterized by its rustic simplicity, bright color palette, and naive charm. Many of these icons were produced in the 17th–19th centuries by self-taught village painters or monk-artisans who “did not always fully grasp the theological depth of the images they copied” . As a result, Lemko icons are often simple and even somewhat primitive in execution , yet they possess a powerful devotional presence. Figures tend to be front-facing and static (maintaining Byzantine compositional schemes), but the proportions can be quirky and the facial expressions straightforward or even childlike. A hallmark of Carpathian icons is the use of vivid background colors (sometimes replacing gold leaf with bright blues, reds, or greens) and inscriptions in Church Slavonic that are frequently misspelled – evidence that some icon-painters were semi-literate and copied text by rote . Despite these “flaws,” such icons were deeply revered by local faithful as tangible signs of God’s presence in daily life .

By the 16th century, certain locales became centers of folk icon production. One famous hub was Rybotycze near Przemyśl: a town where, by the 17th century, a veritable icon-painting industry had developed. Monks at the Posada Rybotycka hermitage painted icons, and soon lay guild artisans in Rybotycze town were producing icons on a large scale – even exporting them along Carpathian trade routes to as far as Slovakia and Romania . Over time, the Rybotycze school’s output took on an increasingly folk character, to the point that 19th-century observers dubbed these icons “bohomazy rybotyckie” (“Rybotycze daubs”) for their naive style . Key features included flat, often whimsical depictions of buildings and trees, generous use of floral and geometric decorative motifs, and a mixing of pagan folk art elements(like sun symbols or local costumes) into biblical scenes. Nonetheless, even the simplest Carpathian icon typically adheres to the standard Eastern Christian imagery – e.g. Christ shown in the mandorla of the Transfiguration, or a patron saint on a stylized throne – proving that the folk painters kept one foot in tradition while improvising with folk aesthetics. Some older masterpieces also found their way to these highlands: Professor Roman Reinfuss noted that Lemko churches at times housed priceless medieval icons “from the 15th or even 14th century, works of painters from Wallachia, Moldavia, or even far-off Bulgaria” that had been brought over the mountains . By the 18th century, local workshops in places like Muszyna (southern Lesser Poland) and individual itinerant painters from the Przemyśl area supplied many village churches with icons . These later icons often show a mix of influences – a Baroque-scroll border here, a traditional halo there – and document the slow penetration of mainstream art into the highland villages.

The Podkarpacie style icons are now treasured in museums such as the Historical Museum in Sanok, which holds over a thousand Carpathian icons (some of the oldest Lemko icons from Daliowa, Tylicz, and other villages date to the  XIV–XVI centuries) . Despite their “unacademic” appearance, they are a “bright page of Slavic culture”, as one Belarusian source puts it, forming an essential part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth’s religious art heritage . Their charm lies in an unpretentious piety: the icons were meant above all to invite prayer and contemplation, not aesthetic admiration . In recent years, scholars like Jarosław Giemza have published monumental studies (e.g. Cerkwie i Ikony Łemkowszczyzny, 2016) cataloguing these works and emphasizing that, despite regional peculiarities, the folk icons still conform to the universal “canon” enough to convey the same sacred narratives . Thus, the Carpathian style adds a folk, locally flavored chapter to Polish and Lithuanian iconography – one where the “untrained hand” of peasant iconographers produced images of enduring spiritual and ethnographic value.

A 17th-century Lemko folk icon (“Prophet Elijah and Enoch”), from a Carpathian church, now in Sanok. The naive style – simple halos, flattened forms, and a floral-arched frame – typifies Podkarpacie regional icons . Inscriptions are in Church Slavonic; errors in spelling were common in such locally-made icons .

Key Books and Academic Articles

Foundational Studies and Catalogs:

• 📚  Michał Janocha, Ikony w Polsce. Od średniowiecza do współczesności (Warsaw: Arkady, 2018) – A comprehensive album by Rev. Prof. Michał Janocha, an art historian and bishop, surveying hundreds of icons in Polish collections from the medieval period to today . Janocha discusses major iconographic themes, the theological basis of iconography, and historical development including icons of the old Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. (Language: Polish)

• 📚 Michał Janocha, “Icon painting in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the sixteenth–eighteenth centuries,” Acta Historiae Artium Balticae 2 (2007), 79–98 – An academic article (in English) focusing on icons in the GDL (Lithuania/Belarus) during the 16th–18th centuries . Janocha (a Catholic priest-scholar) examines the Ruthenian iconographic heritage in the region and its succession by both Orthodox and Uniate traditions, providing a scholarly context for the Vilnius school and Belarusian icons in Polish-Lithuanian lands.

• 📚 Jarosław Giemza, Cerkwie i ikony Łemkowszczyzny (Warsaw: 2016) – A monumental 650-page study of the Lemko region’s churches and icons . Giemza, an expert in Eastern ecclesiastical art (and curator at the Łańcut Castle Museum), presents rare icons from Lemko territories (including 14th–15th c. examples from Daliowa, Tylicz, etc. held in Lviv collections) and provides detailed analysis of their religious, artistic, and cultural context . (Polish, with abundant illustrations.)

• 📚 Romuald Biskupski & Katarzyna Winnicka, Katalog ikon w zbiorach Muzeum Historycznego w Sanoku – A multi-volume catalog of the Sanok Historical Museum’s icon collection. Volume I (2013) by the late Romuald Biskupski covers 15th-century icons; Volume II (2013) by Katarzyna Winnicka covers 16th-century icons . These scholarly catalogs include high-quality reproductions and detailed entries for each icon, many of which are Carpathian and “Kresy” icons from southeastern Poland. (Polish, with summaries.)

• 📚 Tojana Račiūnaitė, “Lukiškių Dievo Motinos ikonos atodanga: restauravimas, ikonografija ir kilmės klausimas,” Acta Academiae Artium Vilnensis 69 (2013), 65–94 – A Lithuanian-language study (“Revelation of the Lukiškės Mother of God Icon: restoration, iconography and question of origin”) documenting the five-year conservation of the Lukiškės icon (Vilnius) . Dr. Račiūnaitė reveals the icon’s origin as a late-15th-c. Smolensk Hodegetria and details how later overpaintings obscured its original form . An important case study in icon conservation and art-historical detective work. (Lithuanian, with English summary.)

• 📚 Rūta Janonienė, “Vilniaus Dievo Motinos ikona ir jos kultas Švč. Trejybės cerkvėje,” in Kultūros paminklai 20 (2016), 134–155 – An article on the “Vilnius Mother of God icon and its cult at the Holy Trinity Church.” Janonienė (a Lithuanian art historian) explores the history and veneration of a major Vilnius icon that was honored by Orthodox, Uniate, and Catholic believers . (Lithuanian.)

• 📚 Grigorij Potocki (Hryhoriy Potashenko), “Вильнюсская школа старообрядческой иконописи: Иван Михайлов и его ученики,” Slavistica Vilnensis 62 (2017), 321–348 – A Russian-language paper on the Vilnius school of Old Believers’ icon painting in the 20th century. It profiles Ivan Mikhailov (1893–1993), a prominent Old Believer iconographer in Vilnius, and shows how he preserved traditional Russian icon methods through Soviet times, training students who continue to work in Lithuania, Latvia, and Belarus . This article provides modern context, connecting historical icon schools with contemporary practitioners.

Theological and Comparative Works:

• 📚 Leonid Ouspensky & Vladimir Lossky, The Meaning of Icons (Boston: 1982; orig. French 1952) – While not specific to Poland/Lithuania, this classic treatise by Orthodox theologians Uspensky and Lossky underpins much modern understanding of icon theology . It elucidates the spiritual principles that apply equally to icons in Eastern Europe. Polish translations of Ouspensky’s works in the 1980s helped reintroduce authentic icon theology to artists and conservators .

• 📚 Pavel Evdokimov, The Art of the Icon: A Theology of Beauty (Oakwood, 1990; orig. French 1970) – Another foundational text on the theology and aesthetics of Eastern icons . Evdokimov’s ideas influenced the resurgence of icon spirituality in the Polish Orthodox Church and Greek Catholic circles, as noted by Polish scholars .

• 📚 “Belarusian Iconography” – BelaOC.org (Belarusian Orthodox Church) – A website (as quoted on Byzcath Forum) that provides an overview of Belarusian icons in the 15th–18th centuries, which directly relates to Polish–Lithuanian icons. It highlights how Belarus (then part of the Commonwealth) blended Byzantine tradition with Renaissance, Baroque, and Classicist styles, due to its position between East and West . This online resource (in English and Belarusian) underscores the cultural originality of icons from the Polish–Lithuanian borderlands.

• 📚 Catalogs of Museum Collections – e.g. Ikony w zbiorach Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie (forthcoming or internal publication) and exhibition catalogs from the National Museum in Kraków, etc. The National Museum in Warsaw’s collection (though not large) and the Lviv National Museum’s catalogs (e.g. Early Ukrainian Icons from the Bohdan and Varvara Khanenko Museum, 2009) are valuable for comparative study, showing icons that once were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and now reside in museum collections abroad.

(Additional references in Polish, Ukrainian, and Lithuanian could be listed, such as works by Piotr Krasny on Uniate church art, Dalia Klajumienė on Orthodox art in Lithuania, or Myroslav Tataryn on Ukrainian icons, but the above represent some of the most essential readings across languages.)

Museums and Collections of Polish–Lithuanian Icons

Poland: Several museums in Poland hold significant icon collections, especially from the eastern borderlands and Orthodox/Greek Catholic heritage:

• The Historical Museum in Sanok (Muzeum Historyczne w Sanoku) – Houses one of the largest and most valuable collections of icons in Poland (over 1,200 pieces) . Its holdings span the  XII–XX centuries, largely from Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches of southeastern Poland (former Lemko and Boyko regions) and adjacent areas of today’s Ukraine. Highlights include rare  XV-century icons (e.g. a 1426 “Christ Pantocrator” from Nowosielce, and Hodegetria icons from Dolina and Długie) and complete iconostasis sets from wooden churches. The collection’s importance is internationally recognized – Sanok’s icons are “among the most precious in Poland and Europe…a priceless testimony of the sacred art of the Eastern Church within the former Commonwealth” . Many are on permanent display in the Sanok castle galleries of ecclesiastical art.

• Museum of Icons in Supraśl (Muzeum Ikon w Supraślu) – Located in the former Archimandrites’ Palace of the Supraśl Monastery, this modern museum (opened 2006) is dedicated entirely to icons. It showcases hundreds of icons recovered from Orthodox churches in the Podlasie region and elsewhere, including some rescued or restored after WWII. The Supraśl Icon Museum places special emphasis on the Supraśl Monastery’s own heritage – exhibiting surviving fragments of the 16th-c. frescoes and a copy of the miraculous Supraśl Mother of God icon (since the original was lost/destroyed during World War I) . Interactive displays explain iconography and the process of painting icons. As noted in its mission, the museum exists in part because the Supraśl collection “belongs to the most valuable in Poland…a legacy of the multi-cultural Polish–Lithuanian state” .

• National Museums and Diocesan Collections: The National Museum in Warsaw and National Museum in Kraków each hold smaller icon arrays, often acquired from former eastern Polish territories. For instance, the Warsaw NM’s collection includes a renowned  XV-century Byzantine icon of the Virgin Hodegetria from Halicz (Halych) and several  XVII–XVIII c. Uniate icons from the Chełm region. The National Museum in Przemyśl (and the Przemyśl Archdiocesan Museum) also preserve many Greek Catholic iconostasis icons left behind after population transfers (e.g. Operation Vistula 1947). Additionally, the Castle Museum in Łańcut has an important collection of Lemko icons, curated by Jarosław Giemza – many of these were featured in the 2016 book Cerkwie i ikony Łemkowszczyzny .

• Other Polish Collections: The Museum of Folk Architecture in Sanok and the Sądecki Ethnographic Park (Nowy Sącz) exhibit icons in situ within preserved wooden churches. The Lubaczów Museum (Muzeum Kresów w Lubaczowie) focuses on Kresy heritage and holds icons from former Polish territories in Ukraine. The National Museum in Szczecin, oddly, has a sizeable icon collection due to post-WWII transfers. Finally, active churches and monasteries (like the Orthodox monasteries of Jabłeczna and Grabarka) possess historic miracle-working icons that are part of the living heritage.

Lithuania: As Lithuania’s Orthodox population was smaller, there are fewer large collections, but notable repositories include:

• The Church Heritage Museum, Vilnius – Primarily a Catholic museum, it also displays some Eastern Christian artifacts. In 2012, it exhibited the fully restored Lukiškės Mother of God icon (now returned to the Dominican church of St. Philip and James) , which is considered Lithuania’s oldest panel painting (late 15th c.) and an object of national cultural value. The museum occasionally hosts exhibitions on Uniate and Orthodox art in the Vilnius region, drawing on items from parish treasuries.

• Lithuanian Art Museum (LDM), Vilnius – The national art museum system of Lithuania holds a number of icons (often in storage or studied by specialists). The Pranas Gudynas Restoration Center (part of LDM) has conserved icons like the Lukiškės icon and an array of Vilnius Basilian icons, and it maintains a study collection. The LDM and Vilnius University also possess some Old Believer icons (19th–20th c.) reflecting the Russian Old Believer communities in Lithuania.

• Orthodox Church Collections: The Orthodox Diocese of Vilnius and Lithuania retains some historic icons in its cathedrals and monasteries. The Holy Spirit Orthodox Monastery in Vilnius, for example, has miraculous icons of St. Paraskeva and others, though these are not in a public museum. Additionally, the small Old Believers’ Museum in Vilnius (established by the Old Believer community) and Old Believer prayer houses in regions like Zarasai hold centuries-old hand-painted icons passed down through families.

Ukraine and Belarus (historical Polish–Lithuanian regions): Internationally, one must note major collections in neighboring countries that contain Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth icons:

• The Andrey Sheptytsky National Museum in Lviv, Ukraine – This museum (formerly the National Museum in Lviv, founded 1905) has one of the world’s richest collections of Ukrainian and Carpathian icons. Many pieces originate from territories that were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. For instance, it houses 14th–15th-century icons from villages like Florynka, Tylicz, etc., which are Lemko areas now in Poland . Lviv’s collection – thousands of icons from Galicia, Volhynia, and Transcarpathia – provides an indispensable reference for Polish and Lithuanian scholars. Some of these icons have traveled to exhibitions in Poland, strengthening cross-border appreciation of the shared heritage.

• National Art Museum of Belarus, Minsk – Belarus’s national museum holds a significant ensemble of Belarusian icons from the  XVI–XVIII centuries. These icons, from Polotsk, Vitebsk, Slutsk and other locales, exemplify the same phenomena of Western influence and Uniate artistry seen in Poland and Lithuania. As one description summarizes: the “traditions of Byzantine art assimilated in Belarusian towns (9th–14th c.) were united with stylistic peculiarities of West European art – Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism – due to the unique history of Belarus being part of the GDL and Rzeczpospolita” . The Minsk collection makes those influences visible. Notably, the famed  XVI-century Zhyrovichy Icon of the Mother of God (an object of Catholic-Orthodox veneration) is kept at the Minsk Theological Academy.

• International Museums: A few icons from this region have entered Western collections. The British Museum (London) holds a rare 16th-c. icon from the Polish-Ukrainian border (acquired via the Czartoryski family). The Museum of Russian Icons in Clinton, MA (USA) has a couple of West Ukrainian icons among its largely Russian holdings. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) displays a beautiful 15th-c. Byzantine icon of the Virgin Hodegetria with later Latin inscriptions, thought to have been in Polish or Slovak territory – illustrating the intermingling of cultures. While such examples are few, they underscore the international interest and dispersion of Polish–Lithuanian icons.

Many collections are increasingly accessible through digital archives and online catalogs (see next section), allowing researchers and the public worldwide to view these treasures.

Workshops, Institutions, and Training in Icon Painting

The resurgence of traditional iconography in Poland and Lithuania has led to the establishment of various schools and workshops that teach the theological and artistic craft of icon painting:

• Supraśl Academy of Iconography (Akademia Supraska) – Housed at the Supraśl Orthodox Monastery, this academy is modeled on Greek monastic schools and functions under the auspices of the Polish Orthodox Church . It offers courses and retreats where students (lay or monastic) learn classical icon “writing” techniques – from preparing the wood panel and gesso, to egg tempera painting and gilding, all in an atmosphere of prayer. The Academy often invites experienced iconographers (including some from Mount Athos or Russia) to instruct, ensuring continuity with the broader Orthodox tradition.

• St. Joseph’s School of Icon Painting, Wadowice – A Roman Catholic initiative in Poland, this school in the town of Wadowice is run by the Jesuits and lay iconographers as an ecumenical venture. It hosted the 2023 National Conference of Polish Iconographers and regularly conducts courses. The Wadowice school underscores that iconography is not limited to Orthodox circles; many Roman Catholics in Poland have embraced icon painting as part of the Latin Church’s rediscovery of Eastern spirituality (per Vatican II’s call in Orientalium Ecclesiarum).

• International Icon Writing Workshops in Nowica – Since the 2010s, the village of Nowica in Lemko country (SE Poland) has become famous for its Międzynarodowe Warsztaty Ikonopisania w Nowicy (International Icon Painting Workshops) . These are week-long summer workshops that bring together iconographers from Poland, Ukraine, and beyond in a rustic, prayerful setting to create icons. Organized by the local Greek Catholic parish and the Friends of Nowica Association, the workshops foster exchange between different Eastern Christian traditions (Orthodox and Greek Catholic participants collaborate) . The icons produced are often exhibited (e.g. a 2025 exhibition at the Warsaw Archdiocesan Museum) , and some are donated to museums that have historical icon collections, symbolically linking new creations with old masterpieces .

• Orthodox Seminary and Workshops in Warsaw & Białystok – The Orthodox Theological Seminary in Warsaw includes training in iconology as part of its curriculum for future priests. Additionally, in Białystok (a region with a large Orthodox community), there are independent ateliers and parish workshops. For example, the Orthodox Culture Center in Białystokhas held icon painting courses taught by graduates of Orthodox academies.

• Greek Catholic Seminary in Przemyśl – The Ukrainian Greek-Catholic archeparchy of Przemyśl-Warsaw runs a seminary in Lviv (for historical reasons), but also holds summer icon seminars in Poland for its seminarians and faithful. These programs often feature instructors from the Ukrainian Catholic University (UCU) in Lviv, which has a renowned Institute of Church Art specializing in iconography and mural art. Through such cooperation, Polish Greek Catholics benefit from the strong iconographic revival in Ukraine.

• Old Believers’ Iconographic School, Vilnius – In the 1970s–80s, Ivan Mikhailov established a circle of Old Believer iconographers in Vilnius, sometimes referred to as the Vilnius Old Believers’ school . He informally trained his daughter Zoya and several students in the meticulous Old Rite style (which preserves 17th-c. Russian techniques). Today, his students continue to practice in Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland, keeping alive a distinct, conservative style of icon painting. Some of them occasionally teach workshops for interested artists (for example, courses in Visaginas, Lithuania – a town with a large Old Believer community).

• Vilnius Academy of Arts – Restoration Faculty – While not an icon-painting school per se, the art academy in Vilnius educates conservation experts who learn icon painting by reconstructive practice. Graduates like Dr. Juratė Senvaitienė and Dalia Panavaitė have both restored icons and gained skills to reproduce missing parts, effectively mastering the craft . Their knowledge is often shared in seminars and publications, thereby influencing the next generation of Lithuanian iconographers.

• Private Ateliers and Associations: In Poland, groups like Ikonografowie.pl (a nationwide association of icon painters) and studios like Vera Icon (in Warsaw) play a key role. Ikonografowie.pl even organized a Synod of Polish Iconographersin 2022 with 314 participants to discuss their identity and craft . The movement includes iconographers from Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and Roman Catholic backgrounds. Many have apprenticed under masters in countries like Ukraine, Greece, or Russia and now teach in Poland. Notable Polish iconographers include Jerzy Nowosielski (1923–2011), who bridged modern art and iconography, and his students, as well as younger artisans who have learned from the above institutions.

In summary, Poland and Lithuania today offer a thriving ecosystem for learning iconography – from monastic academies and seminary courses to ecumenical lay workshops. This infrastructure ensures that the techniques of gilding, egg tempera painting, and linear stylization – once passed down in medieval guilds and monasteries – are being passed forward to new artists, securing the future of the icon tradition in the region.

Notable Exhibitions and Conferences

Over the last few decades, numerous exhibitions and scholarly conferences have shone a spotlight on Polish and Lithuanian iconography, both historically and in contemporary practice. Here are some highlights:

• “Lubelskie Spotkania z Ikoną” (Lublin Encounters with the Icon), 2015 – A landmark event in Lublin, Poland that combined an academic conference with an art exhibition . The first day featured a conference titled “The Spiritual Dimension of the Icon,” gathering eminent experts and iconographers: Bishop Michał Janocha, Prof. Roman Washchuk (Wasylyk) from Ukraine, icon painter Jarosław Giemza, and others . They discussed the theology and artistic state of icons. The second day opened a multinational icon exhibition at Lublin’s Greek Catholic church, showcasing works by 32 iconographers from Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine, representing various schools and styles . This event, supported by the Borderland Spiritual Culture Foundation, underlined Lublin’s role as a meeting point of Eastern and Western Christian art. It concluded with public icon-writing workshops, allowing attendees to learn and create their own small icons under guidance .

• “Ikony w Polsce – Skarby Sztuki Duchowej” (Icons in Poland – Treasures of Spiritual Art), 2000, National Museum in Warsaw – A major exhibition that for the first time gathered important icons from collections across Poland (and some from Ukraine) into one venue. It featured medieval Ruthenian icons from Polish museums, including the famous Hodegetria of Łuck and icons from the Sanok and Przemyśl collections, as well as borrowed pieces from Lviv. The exhibition and its catalog helped raise public awareness of Poland’s icon heritage at the turn of the millennium.

• Series of Exhibitions at the Podlasie Museum in Białystok – Throughout the 2010s, the Podlasie Museum (which administers the Supraśl Icon Museum) organized rotating exhibitions such as “Uratowane Ikony” (Rescued Icons) . These showcased icons that had undergone recent conservation. For instance, a 2017 edition highlighted restored 18th-century icons saved from decay with funding from the Ministry of Culture . Another exhibit focused on icons recovered from illegal trade, emphasizing heritage protection. The Podlasie region also hosts the annual International Festival of Orthodox Church Music “Hajnowka”, which sometimes includes icon exhibitions as a side program.

• International Conference “Byzantine Art in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth” (Warsaw, 2019) – A scholarly gathering organized by the Polish Institute of World Art Studies and University of Warsaw, bringing together researchers of Eastern Christian art. Topics ranged from medieval Wallachian icons in Polish collections to the influence of the Counter-Reformation on Uniate church art. Proceedings from such conferences contribute significantly to the academic literature on icons.

• Synod/Conference of Polish Iconographers “Ikonografowie.pl – Kim jesteśmy?” (Opole, 2022) – This unique forum (part conference, part retreat) convened 314 iconographers from all over Poland and abroad . Hosted by the University of Opole’s Theology Department, its theme was “Who are we? The Identity of Polish Iconographers.” The meeting facilitated networking and deep discussions about technique, spiritual approach, and the multi-confessional nature of icon painting in Poland . It was described as a “spiritual feast and an unforgettable gathering of iconographers” by the organizers . Following its success, a second conference was held in Wadowice in September 2023 , continuing this newly minted tradition.

• “Transfigurations: Lithuanian Icons Yesterday and Today” (Vilnius, 2006) – An exhibition at Vilnius’s Old Arsenal Gallery that juxtaposed restored historic icons from Lithuania (including several from Vilnius Orthodox churches) with modern icons by Lithuanian artists. It highlighted continuity and change in Lithuanian iconography, and was accompanied by a small symposium involving Orthodox clergy and art historians discussing the place of icons in Lithuania’s cultural mosaic.

• Vilnius Old Believers’ Icons Exhibitions – In 2014, the Lithuanian Old Believers community in partnership with the National Museum organized an exhibition titled “Ikonos: Senoji sentikių tradicija” showing exquisite  eighteenth–nineteenth-century Old Believer icons from Lithuania and Latvia. This was covered in the press (e.g. Delfi.lt ran a piece on “Exhibition of Icons of the Old Believers of Lithuania” in Vilnius) , bringing attention to this lesser-known aspect of Lithuanian iconography.

• Cross-Border Exhibits: Given the shared heritage, there have been collaborative exhibitions like “Cerkwie i Ikony Pogranicza” (Churches and Icons of the Borderland) held in both Poland and Ukraine, under EU cultural programs. These exhibits allow icons from Lviv’s collection to be shown in Poland and vice versa. For example, a 2013 exhibit in Kiev showcased Ukrainian and Polish collections side by side, emphasizing common motifs and regional distinctions.

• Upcoming Events: Looking ahead, institutions plan to leverage digital technology. The Supraśl Icon Museum is preparing a virtual exhibition of its star pieces, and the Lviv National Museum (with Polish partners) is planning a 2025 exhibition in Warsaw marking the 120th anniversary of Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky’s birth, including icons he donated. Conferences on restoration techniques for icons are also in the works, as conserving these works is an ongoing concern (e.g. an international workshop in 2024 in Minsk on cleaning and preserving tempera paintings).

The landscape of exhibitions and conferences demonstrates a vibrant engagement with Polish and Lithuanian icons. Such events not only educate the public and share new research findings but also foster a sense of shared heritage between Poland, Lithuania, and their neighbors – reinforcing that the icons of this region are a treasure that transcends modern borders, much as they did in the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Online Resources and Digital Archives

Researchers and enthusiasts of Polish and Lithuanian iconography can access a wealth of information and imagery through various online platforms and archives:

• Digital Catalogs of Museum Collections: Many museums have digitized portions of their icon holdings. The Sanok Historical Museum provides an online Katalog Zbiorów (collection catalog) – while not fully public, highlights of the icon collection have been made available on the museum’s website and social media, showing high-resolution images of select icons (e.g. the Sanok icon of the Holy Trinity). The Podlaskie Museum’s Icon Museum (Supraśl) has a virtual tour and gallery on its site, allowing users to explore the atmospheric icon display rooms and zoom in on individual icons. Similarly, the Lviv National Museum in Ukraine offers an online database where one can search for icons by region or century (in Ukrainian/English).

• Lituanistika Database (lituanistika.lt): An online repository of Lithuanian academic publications. By searching this database, one can find numerous articles on Lithuanian icons, restoration case studies, and historical research (such as those by Račiūnaitė and Janonienė) . While the full texts may not always be available, the abstracts and bibliographic info are useful, and some articles can be downloaded.

• Polish Digital Libraries and Archives: The National Digital Archive (NAC) of Poland hosts historic photographs, some of which include interiors of Orthodox churches and their iconostases in the  interwar period. For instance, NAC has 1930s photos of the iconostasis of the Orthodox Cathedral in Warsaw (before its demolition) and of rural tserkvas in Chełm region, providing insight into how icons were arranged and venerated. The Polona digital library (polona.pl) of the National Library of Poland contains old albums and books – one gem is an 1848 book with lithographs of icons from the Chełm diocese. Searching Polona for “ikony” yields scans of 19th-c. art-history texts discussing icons.

• Wikimedia Commons: As demonstrated above, Wikimedia Commons has an extensive collection of photographs of icons from Polish and Lithuanian museums. There are specific categories, such as “Icons in Historical Museum in Sanok”(80 files) , “Iconostases in Sanok”, “Orthodox icons in Belarus”, etc. These images (often uploaded by museum staff or volunteers) are high-resolution and free to use, providing an excellent visual reference. For example, Commons has clear images of the Bykownia Hodegetria (16th c.), Upiększenie Krzyża (Elevation of the Cross, 18th c.) and others from Sanok . It effectively serves as an online icon gallery supplementing physical visits.

• Byzantine and Christian Museums’ Online Exhibits: Some international projects include Polish/Lithuanian icons. The Europeana portal aggregates cultural heritage items – a search for “icon Poland” or “ikon Litwa” can return digitized icons from various EU museum collections. The Icons-Art database (icons-art.org), initially a French project, includes entries for icons worldwide and has some from Polish collections with scholarly commentary.

• Religious Organization Websites: The Orthodox Church of Poland’s website (orthodox.pl) and the Greek Catholic Church in Poland’s site (cerkiew.org) often post news about icon exhibitions, pilgrimages of miracle-working icons, and have sections on sacred art. For instance, cerkiew.org has a gallery of restored icons from the Przemyśl Archeparchy. The Belarusian Orthodox Church’s site once hosted belaoc.org/ikanapis, which featured galleries of Belarusian icons by century . Though that specific link is currently inactive, the content was shared on forums (like Byzcath) and might be archived.

• Virtual Tours of Wooden Tserkvas: Given that many icons remain in situ, virtual tours of UNESCO-listed wooden Orthodox churches in Poland and Ukraine provide indirect access. Websites like podkarpackie.travel and skansen.mblsanok.pl have 360° panoramas of church interiors – one can spot iconostasis icons in these tours. Similarly, Google Street View has interior views of some churches (e.g. the wooden church in Powroźnik, Poland, and the Holy Spirit Church in Vilnius), allowing viewers to examine the icon screens virtually.

• Educational Portals and Blogs: Websites such as dzieje.pl (Polish history portal) and culture.pl (run by the Adam Mickiewicz Institute) occasionally feature articles on icons – for example, an article on “The Old Believers in Poland” discussed their icon-painting tradition, and Culture.pl has an English article exploring Polish medieval art that touches on Orthodox icons . Niche blogs like Lemkowyna.blogspot.com compile references and bibliographies on Lemko icons (one post lists scholarly works and museum references on Sanok’s 15th–16th c. icons) .

• Iconographers’ Websites: Many contemporary iconographers maintain websites or Facebook pages where they share not only their work but also research on historical icons. The Ikonografowie.pl site , aside from conference info, includes a forum and articles. Individual artists like Małgorzata Kłoczkowska (ikony-malgorzata-klockowska.com) post about workshops and often include educational notes on icon symbolism .

Conclusion

In conclusion, the digital realm provides an ever-expanding gateway to Polish and Lithuanian iconography. From scholarly databases to virtual museums, one can explore everything from an ancient Halychyna icon’s fine details to the schedule of the next icon-writing workshop. These online resources greatly aid in both research and popular appreciation, ensuring that the knowledge of this sacred art is accessible well beyond the walls of churches and archives. As technology advances, we can expect even more interactive and high-resolution access – perhaps 3D models of iconostasis or AI-enhanced deciphering of old inscriptions – all of which will continue to support the comprehensive study and enjoyment of Polish and Lithuanian icons for years to come.