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ISLAMIC MADHABS
The pattern of adhering to a specific Madhabs (school of thought), which is followed by the majority of Muslims worldwide, is often viewed negatively by some dissenting groups. With the spirit of 'purification' of teachings, these groups advocate for a return to the original sources, namely the Quran and Hadith. Accusations of heresy, disbelief, and deviance are readily made against others. It is not just the unique local expressions of religious practice that become targets, but also the adherence to a particular school of thought. Is following a Madhabs (school of thought) truly a deviation from the pure teachings of Islam? What are the foundations and importance of adhering to a school of thought? How should one respond to the negative accusations?"
"Which Madhab that I have to follow? or no follow ?"
What is Madhab ?
What exactly is the meaning of 'madhhab'?
Linguistically, it is 'mahalludz dizhab.' It is also found in 'Mu’jamul Lughah,' 'Mu’jam fil Musthalahat wal Furuq al-Lughawiyah,' by Al-Kafawi. Linguistically, madhhab has three meanings.
The first meaning of madhhab is 'al-mu’taqad,' which means a belief.
The second meaning of madhhab is 'at-thariqah,' which means a path or method.
The third, in terms of terminology, it is 'ma dhahaba ilayhil imam minal aimmah minal ahkam al-ijtihadiyah.' It refers to the opinions of an imam or religious scholar regarding ijtihadiyah rulings derived from their sources.
That is the meaning both linguistically and terminologically. Therefore, following a madhhab means adhering to the ijtihadiyah opinions of an imam. This encompasses two aspects: usul (principles) and furu’ (branches). There is usul al-fiqh, and fiqh as its result. The opinions of the imam on usul al-fiqh are also considered a madhhab; this is known as a methodological madhhab (mazhab manhaji). Then, there are the opinions of the imam on furu’, which is fiqh, resulting from the derivation (istinbath) of rulings on various cases in each madhhab.
History of Madhabs
The Madhabs (school of thought) emerged in the 3rd century Hijri. The imams of this school lived during the era of the Tabi'in and Tabi' Tabi'in. For example, Imam Shafi'i was born in 150 Hijri and died in 204 Hijri. Therefore, the development of this school occurred around the 3rd century Hijri. There are four famous schools of thought among the many that exist.
These well-known schools, spread throughout the world, include the school of Imam Abu Hanifah, whose key figure was Abu Hanifah An-Nu’man, and his followers are called al-Hanafiyah. Then there is the school of Imam Malik Bin Anas, whose followers are called al-Malikiyah. Additionally, there is the school of Imam al-Shafi'i, whose followers are called as-Syafi’iyyah. Lastly, there is the school of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal.
According to recent research, 96% of Muslims worldwide follow the jurisprudence of these four schools. Specifically, the followers of Abu Hanifah make up 48% of traditional Muslims. The school of Imam Malik is followed by 28% of Muslims worldwide, the school of Imam Shafi'i by 15%, and the school of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal by 2%.
What were the variations in schools of thought at that time?
The followers of these schools, in the field of theology, produced theologians like Imam al-Ash’ari (Abu Hasan al-Ash’ari), who followed Imam Shafi’i's school in jurisprudence. Meanwhile, the school of Imam Abu Hanifah produced a theologian named Imam al-Maturidi. This means that Imam al-Maturidi was an expert in theology but followed Imam Abu Hanifah’s school in jurisprudence.
So, did theologians emerge from jurists?
In the past, there was no separation of knowledge. A Muslim would integrate three aspects of knowledge within himself. He would have beliefs concerning what must be believed (aqeedah), practical aspects like jurisprudence or shari’ah, and moral and spiritual aspects (akhlaq and tasawwuf) within one dimension of knowledge. Therefore, a religious scholar usually possessed these three skills. For instance, a Sufi would also be a jurist. All the school imams were Sufis.
Importance of following a Madhab (School of Thought)
It is very urgent. Following a school means having a method and a source. Historically, in both the West and the East, from the 4th century until now, everyone has followed existing schools. The writings of these school imams have been compiled into books that serve as guides followed by Muslims in various countries. It is crucial to follow a school because not everyone can create a new school or perform ijtihad. As experts, such as Ali Hasaballah in his book, explain, people are divided into two groups:
The first group consists a small number who can extract laws directly from their sources, known as the mujtahid, especially the independent absolute mujtahid, who create their own principles to understand the Qur'an and Sunnah. Then there are also the associated mujtahid, who do not create their own principles but follow the principles established by the independent absolute mujtahid in formulating laws.
The second group consists of those unable to extract laws from the sources of the Qur'an and Sunnah due to their limitations. If they were forced to perform istinbat, the religion would fall apart and be corrupted because people who cannot interpret the Qur'an try to interpret it. They fall under the Hadith of Rasulullah Muhammad SAW,
"Whoever interprets the Qur'an with his own opinion, let him prepare his seat in Hell."
Like today, many boldly claim there is no need to follow a school, which we call "non-madhab" groups, saying Islam was revealed without schools of thought. They argue, "In the Prophet's time, there were no schools, so let's go back to the Prophet's time." This is a hasty assumption. The scholars of the schools were authorized by the Prophet to be followed because the Prophet commanded the followers to adhere to the scholars’ opinions, and the scholars must not contradict the Qur'an and Hadith. These scholars were authorized by the Prophet to understand and explain the meanings of the Qur'an and Sunnah, leading to the formation of Ijma' and Qiyas as interpretations of religious teachings. Allah and the Prophet themselves ordered the scholars to be followed. So, the command to follow scholars comes directly from the Prophet.
Claiming there is no need to follow a school then attempting to innovate (tabdi'), mislead (tadllil), or declare others infidels (takfir) arises when they do not follow the guidance of scholars as ordained by Allah and His Messenger. These are the dangers when one does not follow a school. If we are observant, those anti-school individuals are unconsciously establishing their own school. They tell people not to follow a school but to follow them instead. This is ironic. It’s like fleeing from water only to fall into water. They reject Imam Shafi’i's opinions but want others to follow theirs, which is hasty and dangerous.
Accusation that following a school leads to stagnation
Humans can indeed be stagnant, but it is a case-by-case issue, not a generalization. Humans are dynamic beings. The reason is not the opinions of the school imams in their books that cause stagnation. Our people are the ones stagnant. Why are people now not as creative as earlier scholars? Imagine, for example, the kiais (Islamic scholars) in Indonesia. Not many write books like earlier scholars; they mostly consume existing books. This shows that it is us who are stagnant, not the school scholars. In fact, if we delve into their opinions, many principles still apply today, making us more dynamic.
Could a school imam emerge in the current era?
An independent absolute mujtahid cannot exist anymore due to the lack of enthusiasm for learning. I say it is impossible for someone to claim to be an independent mujtahid in this era unless they are mentally unstable, narrow-minded, or weak in their religion. These individuals often use the slogan "back to the Qur'an and Hadith." This slogan implies that following a school means not adhering to the Qur'an and Hadith.
This is a misconception. Following a school does not detach one from the sources of law, the Qur'an, Sunnah, Ijma', and Qiyas. The four schools do not depart from the Qur'an and Sunnah. Earlier scholars did not deviate from these sources. It is a major error to say that following a school hinders one from returning to the Qur'an and Hadith. The books studied in Islamic schools contain interpretations written by experts. So, it is a big mistake to say that the school imams departed from the Qur'an and Hadith.
What about differences of opinion among school scholars?
This is natural. Differences in interpretation regarding sources with speculative meanings can lead to differing opinions. This is natural and even a part of divine wisdom. But these differences are not random; they are based on deep religious knowledge, unlike today, where people differ just to be different, often not based on profound religious knowledge but on whims, which is dangerous and harmful to the religion. The slogan "back to the Qur'an and Hadith" is correct. If you disagree on something, refer it back to Allah and His Messenger. The issue is not with the slogan but with whether those using the slogan meet the prerequisites for interpreting the Qur'an and Hadith. We do not oppose the slogan, but we oppose its practice by those who are not qualified.
How to address entirely new issues different from the past?
The opinions of scholars serve as a guide for later scholars. But not all eras have the same legal cases. Each era’s scholars must solve legal problems as they arise. How to provide answers? The principles established by earlier scholars are used to solve new legal cases. That's what we call as methodological adherence to a school (manhaji). For instance, solving issues by using the principles of legal research (bahtsul masail), matching new cases with similar ones in school books to find the same ruling. If no similarity is found, then using collective legal reasoning (istinbat jama’i), a collective formulation by experts to find a solution, using principles of usul fiqh, fiqh rules, and specific fiqh rules created by earlier scholars.
So, there are no issues that cannot be solved because answering new questions is mandatory. If no answers are provided, there is no legal certainty, like cloning cases, artificial insemination, test-tube babies, building Base Transceiver Station towers on mosque land, online transactions, using card systems in supermarket transactions where the supermarket bills the bank, all these did not exist in the Prophet's time and must be given legal answers. This is the responsibility of current scholars.
Therefore, today’s scholars must still adhere to schools methodologically. Will they find the references themselves in the Qur'an and Hadith? They won’t find them. Because scholars who use the slogan "back to the Qur'an and Hadith" do not create methodologies or principles for returning to the Qur'an and Hadith. Therefore, respect for earlier scholars is essential for Muslims worldwide. Every issue has an answer, depending on whether the scholars can answer it or not.
What and Who Ahlusssunnah wal Jama'ah?
As for Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah, they are the group of experts in tafsir (Quranic exegesis), hadith (prophetic traditions), and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). They are the ones who follow and adhere to the Sunnah of the Prophet and the Sunnah of the Rightly Guided Caliphs after him. They are the saved group. Scholars say: Indeed, this group is now encompassed within the four schools of thought, namely the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools.
In the study of creed/theology, the term Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah is attributed to the doctrines promoted by Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, who opposed the beliefs of the Khawarij and Jabariyah (who tend to be literalist) and the beliefs of the Qadariyah and Mu'tazilah (who tend to be liberal).
In the study of fiqh, the term Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah refers to Sunni understanding, which adheres to the jurisprudence of the four schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali), differing from the Shiite, Zahiri, and Ja'fari jurisprudence.
In the field of creed, Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah follows Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur al-Maturidi. In the field of fiqh, they follow one of the four schools of jurisprudence, specifically the Shafi'i school (Shafi'iyyah).
Furthermore, the understanding of Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah in the field of Sufism is that NU follows Imam al-Junaidi al-Baghdadi (d. 297 H/910 AD) and Imam al-Ghazali at-Thusi (d. 505 H/1111 AD)."
Ahlusssunnah wal Jama'ah in The Science of Tawheed
When studying the science of Tauhid (Islamic monotheism) or creed (aqidah), the Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah (Aswaja) school of thought uses both textual and rational evidence. Textual evidence (dalil naqli) comes from the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), while rational evidence (dalil aqli) is based on sound reasoning.
It is noted that the Mu’tazilah school prioritizes rational evidence over the Qur'an and the Sunnah. They interpret the Qur'an according to their intellect, adjusting the verses to fit their reasoning. If a hadith contradicts their intellect, they disregard it and rely on their rationality. This stance represents a thesis (action) that eventually prompted a reaction, resulting in the emergence of the Ahlul Atsar (أهل الأثر).
The Ahlul Atsar approach is the opposite of the Mu’tazilah. They adhere strictly to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, refraining from interpreting the Qur'an based on intellect for fear of error, especially concerning ambiguous verses (mutashabihat), the meaning of which they leave to Allah (SWT). As Allah states in Surah al-Fath [48:10]:
يَدُ اللَّهِ فَوْقَ أَيْدِيهِمْ
"The Hand of Allah is over their hands."
The Ahlul Atsar do not interpret the meaning of "hand" in this verse, leaving its interpretation to Allah. Their rulings are solely based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah. If they do not find guidance in these sources, they refrain from issuing fatwas. From this group emerged an Imam named Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab, born in Najd in 1703 CE.
Therefore, the Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah school, led by Imam Abdul Hasan Al-Ash'ari and Abu Mansur Al-Maturidi, returns Islamic teachings to the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his companions by adhering to the Qur'an and the Sunnah without neglecting rational evidence. This means they value rational evidence but prioritize the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
Using Evidence in Tauhid
The Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah school prioritizes textual evidence over rational evidence. If human intellect is likened to the eye, then textual evidence is the lamp. To avoid getting lost, we place the lamp in front, and the eye follows the lamp. Human intellect follows the evidence of the Qur'an and Hadith, not the other way around.
Rasulullah Muhammad SAW said:
لَا دِينَ لِمَنْ لَا عَقْلَ لَهُ
"There is no religion for the one who has no intellect."
This means that a person of intellect accepts religion. Intellect accepts religion, not the other way around, because human intellect varies. Religion is the law set by Allah (SWT), sourced from revelation and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), not human intellect. Religion is not human intellect, and human intellect is not religion. Any religious ruling that is not based on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, consensus (ijma'), or analogical reasoning (qiyas) must be rejected.
Therefore, in the science of Tauhid, we adhere to Imam Abul Hasan Al-Ash'ari and Imam Abu Mansur Al-Maturidi. Imam Abul Hasan Al-Ash'ari was born in Basra in 260 AH and died in 324 AH. He studied under Mu’tazilah scholars, including Imam Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Al-Jabal. At that time, the Mu’tazilah was the dominant school during the Abbasid caliphate of Al-Ma'mun bin Harun Al-Rashid, Al-Mu'tasim, and Al-Wathiq. Initially a devoted follower of the Mu’tazilah school, Imam Al-Ash'ari eventually recognized the errors in their beliefs and publicly renounced Mu’tazilah, firmly rejecting their views with clear evidence.
Ahlusssunnah wal Jama'ah in The Science of Tasawuf
Ahlussunnah wal Jama'ah follow Imam Ash'ari and Imam Maturidi in matters of creed (aqidah), the four imams in matters of jurisprudence (fiqh), and Imam Junaid Al-Baghdadi and Imam Al-Ghazali in matters of Sufism (tasawuf).
Junaid bin Muhammad Az-Zujjaj was the son of Muhammad, a glass seller. He was originally from Nahawand, born and raised in Iraq. Junaid was an expert in fiqh and issued fatwas based on the fiqh school of Abu Thaur, one of Imam Shafi'i's companions.
Junaid studied under As-Sarri As-Saqthi, his own uncle, Al-Harith Al-Muhasibi, and Muhammad bin Ali Al-Qashshab. Junaid was one of the great imams and a prominent leader in the field of Sufism. He was also known for his extraordinary spiritual gifts (karamah). His words were accepted by many. He passed away on a Saturday in 297 H. His grave is well-known in Baghdad and is visited by both common people and distinguished individuals.
Sheikh Ibrahim Al-Laqqani, in Jauharat Al-Tawhid, mentioned Imam Malik and Imam Junaid Al-Baghdadi as guides and role models for the Muslim community:
ومالك وسائر الأئمة وكذا أبو القاسم هداة الأمة
'Imam Malik RA and all the imams, including Abu Al-Qasim, are guides of the community.'
Despite being a Sufi imam of his time, Junaid Al-Baghdadi did not neglect the aspect of fiqh in his daily life. This means he was quite balanced in addressing the outward (fiqh) and inward (tasawuf) aspects, even when these aspects were in tension and not harmoniously aligned in his era. In his time, many scholars were fanatically stuck at one extreme, either focusing solely on fiqh or solely on Sufism.
Many scholars embraced the fiqh aspect of Islamic law but neglected the Sufi aspect. Conversely, many scholars took the Sufi path but neglected the fiqh aspect of Islamic law. Junaid himself was also an expert in fiqh. He was a mufti who issued fatwas based on the school of Abu Thaur, one of Imam Shafi'i's companions. For him, the path to Allah cannot be traveled except by those who follow the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad SAW.
Junaid Al-Baghdadi embodied a strong Sufi character and approach, specifically Sunni Sufism. This path was chosen by Junaid Al-Baghdadi because many Sufi practitioners of his time were caught up in esoteric practices and innovations (bid'ah) that did not stem from the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad SAW. Therefore, Imam Junaid is considered a role model for NU in the field of Sufism because he remained firmly grounded in the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad SAW.
These imams are chosen individuals among the best of the community, but their rank is below that of the companions of the Prophet and the tabi'in. Ultimately, Imam Malik and other jurists (fuqaha) are guides of the community in matters of branches (furu') or fiqh. Imam Ash'ari and other Sunni theologians (mutakallimun) are guides of the community in matters of principles (usul) or creed. Imam Junaid and other Sufis are guides of the community in matters of Sufism. May Allah reward them for their goodness and may Allah grant us benefit from their knowledge and deeds.
Imam Junaid also lamented the naive attitude of some Sufi groups who neglected the outward aspect. According to him, the naive attitude of some Sufis in neglecting the outward aspect reflects a crumbling inner condition, like a dead city without buildings.
وكان رضي الله عنه يقول إذا رأيت الصوفي يعبأ بظاهره فاعلم أنه باطنه خراب
'Imam Junaid RA said, "If you see a Sufi neglecting his outward appearance, know that his inner self is in ruins."'
Conversely, he also lamented the attitude of some Muslims who only emphasized the outward aspect through the formalities of fiqh law, neglecting the inward aspect, which is the essence of servitude to Allah.
In conclusion, Imam Junaid Al-Baghdadi was a 3rd-century H scholar who reconciled fiqh and Sufism at a time when the two had never found common ground.
Ahlusssunnah wal Jama'ah in The Science of Fiqh
All Muslims in the world and their scholars recognize that the four Imams—Imam Hanafi, Imam Maliki, Imam Shafi’i, and Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal—meet the requirements to be Mujtahid. This is due to their knowledge, deeds, and character. Therefore, experts in fiqh have issued a fatwa that it is obligatory for Muslims to follow one of these four madhabs (schools of thought).
Hanafi School
It is called Hanafi because its founder is Imam Abu Hanifah An-Nu'man bin Thabit. He was born in 80 AH in Kufa and died in 150 AH. This school is known as the school of Ahli Qiyas (analogy) because the hadiths that reached Iraq were few, so he extensively used Qiyas. He was known to be intelligent, compassionate, a diligent night worshipper, and fluent in reciting the Qur'an.
He was offered the position of judge during the last Umayyad era, but he declined. This school developed because it became the government’s official school during the caliphate of Harun Al-Rashid. Later, during the rule of Abu Ja'far Al-Mansur, he was again asked to become a judge, but he refused and chose to live as a merchant. This school was born in Kufa.
The Hanafi school is the most widely followed school of Islamic jurisprudence. It is predominant in:
South Asia: Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan
Central Asia: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan
Turkey and the Balkans: including countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and Kosovo
Parts of the Middle East: Iraq and parts of Syria
The Hanafi school is also influential in various Muslim communities in Western countries.
Maliki School
Its founder is Al-Imam Maliki bin Anas Al-Ashbahy. He was born in Madinah in 93 AH and died in 179 AH. He was a hadith expert in Madinah, where the Prophet SAW lived. This school is known as the school of Ahli Hadith. He even preferred the practices of the people of Madinah over Khabar al-Wahid (hadith narrated by a single individual) because, to him, it was impossible for the people of Madinah to act contrary to the Prophet’s actions.
He emphasized hadith because, according to him, the practices of the people of Madinah were considered mutawatir hadith. This school originated in Madinah and later spread to other countries, especially Morocco. He had great respect and love for the Prophet, so much so that he never rode a camel in Madinah out of respect for the Prophet’s tomb.
The Maliki school is primarily followed in North and West Africa. It is the dominant school in:
North Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania
West Africa: Mali, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Chad, and Nigeria (particularly in the northern regions)
Sudan and parts of the UAE
Some areas of the Arabian Peninsula, particularly in Bahrain and Kuwait
Shafi'i School
Its main figure is Al-Imam Muhammad bin Idris As-Shafi’i Al-Qurashi. He was born in Gaza in 150 AH and died in Egypt in 204 AH. He studied under Imam Malik, known for his hadith-based school, then went to Iraq to learn from the scholars there known for their analogy-based school.
He endeavored to integrate these schools, creating a comprehensive school that combined hadith and qiyas. Among his distinguishing traits, Shafi’i memorized the Qur'an at the age of 7, was skilled in discussion, and always stood out. This school originated in Egypt and then spread to other regions.
The Shafi'i school is predominant in the following regions:
East Africa: Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and parts of Ethiopia
The Horn of Africa
Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, and the Muslim communities in the Philippines and southern Thailand
Yemen, particularly in the Hadhramaut region
The Shafi'i school also has adherents in the Levant (particularly in parts of Syria and Palestine) and in Egypt.
Hanbali School
It is named Hanbali because its founder is Al-Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal As-Syaibani, born in Baghdad in 164 AH and died in 248 AH. He was the most distinguished student of Imam Shafi’i and never left his side until Shafi’i went to Egypt.
According to him, weak hadith could be used for virtuous actions (fadha'il al-a'mal) but not for determining legal rulings. He did not acknowledge Ijma' (consensus) after the companions because scholars were numerous and widespread."
The Hanbali school, while the smallest in terms of followers, is very influential. It is primarily followed in:
Saudi Arabia, where it is the dominant school and the basis of the legal system
Qatar, where it is also widely followed
Additionally, there are smaller communities of Hanbali adherents in parts of the UAE and in regions with Salafi influences.
Each of these schools has played a significant role in the development of Islamic jurisprudence and continues to influence the practice of Islam in these regions.
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