Principles of Accounting

Meaning of Accounting Principles:

Accounting principles are the rules of action or conduct adopted by accountants universally while recording accounting transactions.

GAAP refers to the rules of guidelines adopted for recording and reporting of business transactions, in order to bring uniformity in the preparation and presentation of financial statements.

Features of accounting principles:

(i)              Accounting principles are manmade.

(ii)            Accounting principles are flexible in nature.

(iii)          Accounting principles are generally accepted.

Necessity of accounting principles:

Accounting information is meaningful and useful for users if the accounting records and financial statements are prepared following generally accepted accounting information in standard forms which are understood.

Basic Accounting concepts

1.Business entity concepts: this concept assumes that business has a distinct and separate entity from its owners. Therefore business transactions are recorded in the books of accounts from the business point of view and not owners.

2. Money measurement concept: this concept states that transactions and events that can be expressed in money terms are recorded in the books of accounts. Non monetary transactions cannot be recorded in the books like appointment of manager, capabilities of human resources etc. Another aspest is the records of transactions are to be kept not in physical unit but in monetary unit. For example, an organisation has 2 building, 15 computers, 20 office tables are not recorded because they are physical unit and not in monetary unit.

3. Going concern concept: This concept assumes that business shall continue to carry out its operations indefinitely for a long period of time and would not be liquidated in the foreseeable future. It provides the very basis for showing the value of assets in the balance sheet.

4. Accounting period concept: Accounting period refers to span of time of the end of which financial statements are prepared to know the profits or loss and financial position of business. Information is required to by different users at regular intervals for decision making. This is normally a period of one year, it may be calendar year or financial year. Calendar year; 1 January To 31st December, financial year; 1 April to 31st March next year.

5. Cost concept: According to this concept assets are recorded in the books of accounts at the purchase price which includes the purchase price, cost of acquisition, transportation and installation. This concept is historical in nature. For example, if machine purchased for Rs. 75000, the purchase or acquisition price will remain same for all years to come, though its market value may change. The main limitation of this concept is that it does not show the true value of asset and may lead to hidden profits.

6. Dual aspect concept: this concept provides the very basis for recording the transaction in the books of accounts. It states that every transaction entered in the books has two aspects. For example, Man as started business with cash Rs. 50000. In this transaction asset (cash) increases and liability (capital of owner) also increases. This principle is also known as duality principle. This principle is commonly expressed in fundamental accounting equation, Assets = Liabilities + Capital; this equation states that assets of business are always equal to the claims of owner and outsiders.

7. Revenue recognition concept (Realisation concept): according to this principle revenue is considered to have been realised when a transaction has been entered and obligation to receive the amount has been established. In other words when we receive right to receive revenue than it is called revenue is realised.

8. Matching concept: the matching concept states that expenses incurred in an accounting period should be matched with revenue during that period. It follows from this that revenue and expenses incurred to earn these revenues must belong to same accounting period.

9. Full disclosure concept: Apart from legal requirement good accounting practice require all material and significant information must be disclosed. Financial statements are the basic means of communicating financial information to its users for taking useful financial performance must be fully disclosed in financial statements of the business.

10.  Consistency concept: This concept states that accounting practices followed by an enterprise should be uniform and consistent over a period of time. For example if an enterprise has adopted straight line method of charging depreciation then it has to be followed year after year. If we adopt written down value method from second year for charging depreciation than the financial information will not be comparable. However consistency does not prohibits the change accounting policies. Necessary changes can be adopted and should be disclosed.

11.  Conservatism concept (prudence concept): this concept takes into consideration all prospective losses but not the prospective profit. It means profit should not be recorded until it realised but all losses, even those which have remote possibility are to be recorded in the books. For example, valuing closing stock at cost or market value whichever is lower, creating provision for doubtful debts etc. This concept ensures that the financial statements provide the real picture of the enterprise.

12.  Materiality concept: The materiality concept is the principle in accounting that trivial matters are to be disregarded, and all important matters are to be disclosed. Items that are important enough to matter are material items. United States GAAP, for instance, states that items are material if “they could influence the economic decisions of [financial statement] users” in other words, materiality errors can mislead decision makers.

13.  Objectivity concept: this concept states that accounting should be free from personal bias. This can be possible when every transaction is supported by verifiable documents. For example, purchase of machinery for Rs. 30000 should be supported by the voucher and should be recorded in the books of accounts. Similarly other supporting documents are cash memo, Invoices, receipts provides the basis for accounting and auditing.

Basis of Accounting

1.Cash Basis: Under this entries in the books of accounts are made when cash is received or paid and not when the receipt or payment becomes due. For example, if salary Rs. 7000 of January 2010 paid in February 2010 it would be recorded in the books of accounts only in February, 2010.

2.Accrual basis: Under this however, revenues and costs are recognized in the period in which they occur rather when they are paid. It means it record the effect of transaction is taken into book in the when they are earned rather than in the period in which is actually received or paid by the enterprise. It is more appropriate basis for calculation of profits as expenses are matched against revenue earned in the relation thereto. For example, raw material consumed are matched against the cost of goods sold for the accounting period.

Accounting standards (AS)

“ A mode of conduct imposed on an accountant by custom, law and a professional body.”

Nature of accounting standards:

1. Accounting standard are guidelines which provide the framework credible financial statement can be produced.

2. Accounting to change in business environment accounting standard are being changed or revised from time to time.

3.To bring uniformity in accounting practices and to ensure consistency and comparability is the main objective of accounting standards.

4.Where the alternative accounting practice is available, an enterprise is free to adopt. So accounting standard are flexible.

5.Accounting standards are amendatory in nature.

Utilities of Accounting standards:

1. they provide the norms on the basis of which financial statement should be prepared.

2. It creates the confidence among the users of accounting information because they are reliable.

3. It helps accountants to follow the uniform accounting practices and helps auditors in auditing.

4. It ensures the uniformity in preparation and presentation of financial statements by following the uniform practices.

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS):

To maintain uniformity and use of same or single accounting standards, International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) are developed by International Accounting Standard Board (IASB).

Objectives of IASB:

1.To develop the single set of high quality global accounting standards so users of information can make good decisions and the information can be comparable globally.

2. To promote the use of these high quality standards.

3.To fulfil the special needs of small and medium size entity by following above objectives.

Meaning of IFRS: IFRS is a principle based accounting standards. IFRS are a single set of high quality accounting standards developed by IASB, recommended to be used by the enterprises globally to produce financial statements.

Benefits of IFRS:

1. Global comparison of financial statements of any companies is possible.

2. Financial statements prepared by using IFRS shall be better understood with financial statements prepared by the country specific accounting standards. So the investors can make better decision about their investments.

3. Industry can raise or invest their funds by better understanding if financial statements are there with IFRS.

4. Accountants and auditors are in a position to render their services in countries adopting IFRS.

5. By implementation of IFRS accountants and auditors can save the time and money.

Firm using IFRS can have better planning and execution. It will help the management to execute their plans globally.

QUESTIONS:

Explain cost concept.

1.     What is mean by accounting standard? What is the main objective of accounting standard?

2.     Explain the following concept.

a.     Business entity concept

b.     Going concern concept

c.     Revenue recognition concept

3.     Explain the utility of Accounting Standards.

4.     Which principle assumes that a business enterprise will not be liquidated in near future?

5.     “Closing stock is valued lower than the market price” which concept of accounting is applied here?

6.     ‘An asset may defined as a bundle of services’ explain with an example.

7.     Under which accounting principle, quality of manpower is not recommended in the books of accounts.