The ornate casket containing the 'Secret History of the Mongols' which is a chronicle written in the 13th century CE (with some later additions) and is the most important and oldest medieval Mongolian text. (Government Building, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia)
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The Secret History of the Mongols is a chronicle written in the 13th century CE (with some later additions) and is the most important and oldest medieval Mongolian text. The book covers the origins of the Mongol people, the rise to power and reign of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) and the reign of his son and successor Ogedei Khan (r. 1229-1241 CE). Written from a Mongolian perspective, unlike most other medieval sources on the Mongol Empire, the work is an invaluable record of their legends, oral and written histories and, with its treatment of Genghis Khan and his imperial orders, it gives a unique insight into one of the most important leaders in world history. The title includes the word 'secret' because either only members of the imperial family and those given special favour or only Mongols were permitted to read it, even if other versions were in circulation in some remote places like Tibet.
The Secret History of the Mongols is a chronicle written in the 13th century CE (with some later additions) and is the most important and oldest medieval Mongolian text. The book covers the origins of the Mongol people, the rise to power and reign of Genghis Khan (r. 1206-1227 CE) and the reign of his son and successor Ogedei Khan (r. 1229-1241 CE). Written from a Mongolian perspective, unlike most other medieval sources on the Mongol Empire, the work is an invaluable record of their legends, oral and written histories and, with its treatment of Genghis Khan and his imperial orders, it gives a unique insight into one of the most important leaders in world history. The title includes the word 'secret' because either only members of the imperial family and those given special favour or only Mongols were permitted to read it, even if other versions were in circulation in some remote places like Tibet.
Marco Polo (1254-1324 CE) was a Venetian merchant and explorer who travelled to China and served the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan (l. 1214-1294 CE) between c. 1275 and 1292 CE. Polo's adventures are recounted in his own writings, The Travels, where he describes the peoples, places, and customs of the East, including the fabulous court of the Khan. The work caused a sensation and was one of the principal factors in creating a lasting image in European minds that China was a fabulous land of wealth and exotica, almost too fantastic to be believed. Even if doubts remain as to just where he travelled to and what he saw with his own eyes, Marco Polo continues to enjoy a reputation as one of the world's greatest ever explorers and his work provides invaluable insights into Mongol rule and Asia in general in the late 13th century CE.
Marco Polo (1254-1324 CE) was a Venetian merchant and explorer who travelled to China and served the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan (l. 1214-1294 CE) between c. 1275 and 1292 CE. Polo's adventures are recounted in his own writings, The Travels, where he describes the peoples, places, and customs of the East, including the fabulous court of the Khan. The work caused a sensation and was one of the principal factors in creating a lasting image in European minds that China was a fabulous land of wealth and exotica, almost too fantastic to be believed. Even if doubts remain as to just where he travelled to and what he saw with his own eyes, Marco Polo continues to enjoy a reputation as one of the world's greatest ever explorers and his work provides invaluable insights into Mongol rule and Asia in general in the late 13th century CE.
This manuscript from about 1350 is one of the oldest extant copies of Les voyages de Marco Polo (The travels of Marco Polo), the account by the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (circa 1254−1324) of his adventures in Central Asia and the Far East during the latter part of the 13th century.
At various points in China’s history, the Haijin order has been placed on peoples of the coast. Haijin is a restriction on maritime activity. It means literally “sea ban.” The entailments of these bans would change from age to age. In some cases it meant prohibitions against owning ocean-going vessels and putting them to sea. Less strict Haijins sought only to regulate maritime shipping. The ostensible purpose of the policy was to deter piracy and smuggling. Some have speculated that the underlying intent was to mitigate the development of coastal economies so as to preserve the supremacy of the imperial capital. Haijin certainly had the practical effect of devastating China’s ports and of keeping the coastal border weak and unfortified.
The Hongwu Emperor (aka Ming Taizu) would reign until 1398 CE, and his successors continued his efforts to unify China through a strong centralised government and so consolidate the Ming dynasty's grip on power. A new and draconian law code was compiled (the Da Ming lü or Grand Pronouncements); dissenting officials were ruthlessly punished or executed; the Secretariat, which had acted as a bureaucratic limit on an emperor's power, was abolished; land and tax obligations were meticulously registered; provincial governments were reorganised with imperial family members placed at their heads; hereditary military service was imposed on the peasantry in threatened regions; international trade was curbed as all things foreign were considered a threat to the regime; and the old tribute system required of neighbouring states was revived.
The Hongwu Emperor (aka Ming Taizu) would reign until 1398 CE, and his successors continued his efforts to unify China through a strong centralised government and so consolidate the Ming dynasty's grip on power. A new and draconian law code was compiled (the Da Ming lü or Grand Pronouncements); dissenting officials were ruthlessly punished or executed; the Secretariat, which had acted as a bureaucratic limit on an emperor's power, was abolished; land and tax obligations were meticulously registered; provincial governments were reorganised with imperial family members placed at their heads; hereditary military service was imposed on the peasantry in threatened regions; international trade was curbed as all things foreign were considered a threat to the regime; and the old tribute system required of neighbouring states was revived.
The reduction in commerce compared to the more internationally-minded Mongols meant that agriculture was once more the focus of government economic policy. Following the devastation of large swathes of China after the Mongol invasion and the rebellions during the Yuan's death throes, land for cultivation was meticulously registered and redistributed back to the peasantry, areas were drained, irrigation systems were improved, and some areas were reforested. The region of the south-west was conquered, and a new province was created; Guizhou.
Jikji is the abbreviated title of a Korean Buddhist document, whose full title can be translated as, The Monk Baegun's Anthology of the Great Priests' Teachings on Identification of the Buddha’s Spirit by the Practice of Seon. An edition of Jikji printed during the Goryeo Dynasty, in 1377, is on record as the world's oldest extant movable metal print book. UNESCO confirmed Jikji as the world oldest metal type book in September 2001, and includes it in the Memory of the World program. The metal-type Jikji was published in Heungdeok Temple in 1377, 78 years prior to Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible" printed during the years 1452-1455. An incomplete copy survives today, preserved at the Manuscrits Orientaux division of National Library of France.
Jikji is the abbreviated title of a Korean Buddhist document, whose full title can be translated as, The Monk Baegun's Anthology of the Great Priests' Teachings on Identification of the Buddha’s Spirit by the Practice of Seon. An edition of Jikji printed during the Goryeo Dynasty, in 1377, is on record as the world's oldest extant movable metal print book. UNESCO confirmed Jikji as the world oldest metal type book in September 2001, and includes it in the Memory of the World program. The metal-type Jikji was published in Heungdeok Temple in 1377, 78 years prior to Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible" printed during the years 1452-1455. An incomplete copy survives today, preserved at the Manuscrits Orientaux division of National Library of France.
There is a record indicating that in 1377 Baegun's students, priests Seoksan and Daldam, helped in the publication of Jikji by using moveable metal type and the priestess Myodeok contributed her efforts as well. Although made from movable type, Jikji and Johannes Gutenberg use different methods for printing.
Zheng He was a living example of religious tolerance, perhaps even syncretism, or at least a master of diplomacy. The Galle Trilingual Inscription set up by Zheng He around 1411 in Sri Lanka records the offerings he made at a Buddhist mountain. "Inscriptions written in Chinese, Tamil and Persian praise Buddha, Shiva and Allah in equal measure."
Zheng He was a living example of religious tolerance, perhaps even syncretism, or at least a master of diplomacy. The Galle Trilingual Inscription set up by Zheng He around 1411 in Sri Lanka records the offerings he made at a Buddhist mountain. "Inscriptions written in Chinese, Tamil and Persian praise Buddha, Shiva and Allah in equal measure."
The tablet was erected in 1411, to commemorate the second visit to Sri Lanka by the Chinese admiral Zheng He, who commanded seven great voyages through the South China Seas and the Indian ocean between 1405 and 1433.
The tablet was erected in 1411, to commemorate the second visit to Sri Lanka by the Chinese admiral Zheng He, who commanded seven great voyages through the South China Seas and the Indian ocean between 1405 and 1433.
On the first voyage, Zheng He reached Sri Lanka in 1406. The local ruler was unfriendly and the expedition hastily departed. The fleet sailed on to Calicut, the furthest port for the first expedition, where they were most impressed by the acumen and straight dealing of the traders.
On the first voyage, Zheng He reached Sri Lanka in 1406. The local ruler was unfriendly and the expedition hastily departed. The fleet sailed on to Calicut, the furthest port for the first expedition, where they were most impressed by the acumen and straight dealing of the traders.
The second expedition went as far as Siam. The third sailed from China in 1409, and carried with it the trilingual tablet which Zheng He planned to erect in Sri Lanka. The date equates to 15 February 1409, indicating that it was inscribed in Nanjing before the fleet set out. The Chinese portion gives praise to Buddha and records lavish offerings in his honour.
The second expedition went as far as Siam. The third sailed from China in 1409, and carried with it the trilingual tablet which Zheng He planned to erect in Sri Lanka. The date equates to 15 February 1409, indicating that it was inscribed in Nanjing before the fleet set out. The Chinese portion gives praise to Buddha and records lavish offerings in his honour.
The Tamil portion of the tablet offered similar praise to the god Tenavarai-Nayanar, perhaps a local form of Shiva, and the Arabic inscription gave praise to Allah. To each god the Chinese offered similar lavish tributes.
The Tamil portion of the tablet offered similar praise to the god Tenavarai-Nayanar, perhaps a local form of Shiva, and the Arabic inscription gave praise to Allah. To each god the Chinese offered similar lavish tributes.
The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, 820 CE, al-Khwarizmi (ABBASID CALIPHATE, Baghdad)
The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, 820 CE, al-Khwarizmi (ABBASID CALIPHATE, Baghdad)
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and geographer. He was born around 780 in Khwārizm (now Khiva, Uzbekistan) and died around 850. He worked most of his life as a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.
His Algebra was the first book on the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. Consequently he is considered to be the father of algebra,[1] a title he shares with Diophantus. Latin translations of his Arithmetic, on the Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world in the twelfth century.[2] He revised and updated Ptolemy's Geography as well as writing several works on astronomy and astrology.
His contributions not only made a great impact on mathematics, but on language as well. The word algebra is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations used to solve quadratic equations, as described in his book. The words algorism and algorithm stem from algoritmi, the Latinization of his name.[3] His name is also the origin of the Spanish word guarismo and of the Portuguese word algarismo, both meaning "digit."
The Compendious Book provided an exhaustive account of solving for the positive roots of polynomial equations up to the second degree. It was the first text to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake. It also introduced the fundamental concept of "reduction" and "balancing" (which the term al-jabr originally referred to), the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, i.e. the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.
The Compendious Book provided an exhaustive account of solving for the positive roots of polynomial equations up to the second degree. It was the first text to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake. It also introduced the fundamental concept of "reduction" and "balancing" (which the term al-jabr originally referred to), the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, i.e. the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age, and the father of early modern medicine.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age, and the father of early modern medicine.
An encyclopedia of medicine in five books compiled by Central Asian Muslim physician-philosopher Avicenna (ابن سینا, Ibn Sina) and completed in 1025. It presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge of the Islamic world, which had been influenced by earlier traditions including Greco-Roman medicine (particularly Galen), Persian medicine, Chinese medicine and Indian medicine.
The Canon of Medicine remained a medical authority for centuries. It set the standards for medicine in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world and was used as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.
The most important of Avicenna’s 16 medical works, the 14-volume Qanun (The Canon of Medicine), contains over one million words and is divided into five books. The first gives general principles of medicine; the second is an alphabetical listing of simple drugs; the third deals with diseases of particular organs and parts of the body; the fourth with diseases which spread throughout the body from an initial starting point, such as fevers; and the fifth with compound medicines. The work classified and described diseases; outlined their assumed causes; and covered hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body. It asserted that tuberculosis was contagious, and described the symptoms and complications of diabetes.
A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling, 1355 CE, Ibn Battuta (MOROCCO)
A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling, 1355 CE, Ibn Battuta (MOROCCO)
Ibn Battuta traveled as far as the Maldives and India, and returned home through Syria at the height of the plague in 1348 CE, noting how death was all around him (he is recognized today as one of the first writers to record the plague in detail). He arrived back in Morocco sometime in late 1348 CE. Finding that his father and mother had died recently from the plague and that his friends were gone or dead, he set out again, returning to Spain and then taking a trip across to Timbuktu and the trading center of Gao only returning home again to Morocco in c. 1352 CE.
He settled in the city of Fez where the Sultan Abu Inan heard his story and was so impressed that he asked it be written down. The Sultan either assigned the scribe Ibn Juzay al-Kalbi or Ibn Battuta chose him for the job (having met him earlier on his travels). Ibn Battuta narrated the tale of his journeys to Ibn Juzay and the result was the now-famous Rihla of Ibn Battuta. Following the dictation of his travels to Ibn Juzay, he vanishes from history but was most probably given a government post in the city by the Sultan. He died, probably in Fez, in either 1368 or 1369 CE.
The title of this initial manuscript may be translated as A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling, but is often simply referred to as the Rihla, or "Journey." Though apparently fictional in places, the Rihla still gives us the most complete an account we have on record for certain parts of the world in the fourteenth century.
The title of this initial manuscript may be translated as A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling, but is often simply referred to as the Rihla, or "Journey." Though apparently fictional in places, the Rihla still gives us the most complete an account we have on record for certain parts of the world in the fourteenth century.
Muqaddimah (مقدمة) is an Arabic word used to mean "Prologue" or "The Introduction", to introduce a larger work
Muqaddimah (مقدمة) is an Arabic word used to mean "Prologue" or "The Introduction", to introduce a larger work
A book written by the Arab historian Ibn Khaldun in 1377 which records an early view of universal history. Some modern thinkers view it as the first work dealing with the social sciences of sociology, demography, and cultural history. The Muqaddimah also deals with Islamic theology, historiography, the philosophy of history, economics, political theory, and ecology. It has also been described as a precursor or an early representative of social Darwinism, and Darwinism.
In his Muqaddimah he also identifies the problem that history is full of untruth due to the prejudices of those who record it, "partisanship for opinions and schools."
Sulalatus Salatin ("Genealogy of Kings," traces the origins of the Malacca Sultanate), c. 1450, (MALACCA SULTANATE)
Sulalatus Salatin ("Genealogy of Kings," traces the origins of the Malacca Sultanate), c. 1450, (MALACCA SULTANATE)
Parameswara (1344-1414), a Palembang prince of Hindu descent from Srivijaya, founded Malacca around 1400.
Parameswara (1344-1414), a Palembang prince of Hindu descent from Srivijaya, founded Malacca around 1400.
In the 1390s, Majapahit sent thousands of ships to attack Palembang (the capitol), and conquered the city, ending a thousand-year-old empire. Parameswara, who had been living in Palembang as a prince, fled from his palace and eventually reached Temasik island, which was headed by a Srivijayan descendant, Temagi, a Malay chief from Patani who had been appointed by the King of Siam as Regent of Temasek. However, Temasik had been a vassal of Majapahit since 1365. After several days, Parameswara was betrayed by his relative and had to kill him. Parameswara then ruled Temasik for about four years, until he was attacked by Majapahit armies, when one of Parameswara’s ministers opened the gates to allow Majapahit armies to attack the palace. Parameswara fled north to Muar.
At Muar, Parameswara contemplated establishing his kingdom at either Biawak Busuk or at Kota Buruk. Finding that the Muar location was not suitable, he continued his journey northwards. Along the way, he reportedly visited Sening Ujong (former name of present day Sungai Ujong) before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of the Bertam River (former name of the Malacca River). This evolved over time to become the location of modern day Malacca Town. According to the Malay Annals (Sulalatus Salatin), it was here that he witnessed a mouse deer outwitting a dog while resting under a Malacca tree. He took what he saw as a good omen and decided to establish a kingdom called Melaka in 1400. Today, the mouse deer is part of modern Malacca's coat of arms.
A literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and demise of the great Malay maritime empire, the Malacca Sultanate. The work, which was composed sometime between the 15th and 16th centuries, is considered one of the finest literary and historical works in the Malay language.
A literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and demise of the great Malay maritime empire, the Malacca Sultanate. The work, which was composed sometime between the 15th and 16th centuries, is considered one of the finest literary and historical works in the Malay language.
A collection of allegorical stories by Amir Khusro written in Persian in the early 13th century.
A collection of allegorical stories by Amir Khusro written in Persian in the early 13th century.
While legend says that Amir Khusro was the author, the tales were written long after his death
While legend says that Amir Khusro was the author, the tales were written long after his death
The book is in some ways similar to the Thousand and One Nights in its method of framing and linking unfinished stories within each other. The central character is a king, Azad Bakht, who falls into depression after thinking about his own mortality, and so sets out from his palace seeking wise men. He comes upon four dervishes in a cemetery, and listens to their fantastical stories. Each Dervish narrates his own story, which is basically on love and fidelity in their own past lives. When the fourth dervish finishes his tale, the king Azadbakht suddenly learns that one of his wives has just born the son to him. Overwhelmed with joy, the king orders to arrange a great feast. With the help of the great king of jinns, Malik Syahpal, Azadbakht marries all the separated lovers to one another: the merchant's son from Yemen to the princess of Damsyik, the prince of Fars to the princess of Basra, the prince of Ajam to the princess of Farang, the prince of Nimroz to the princess of jinns, and the prince of China to the daughter of the courtier, who was kidnapped by Malik Sadik. Everyone happily achieves the fulfillment of his or her desire.
As Ðại Việt grew in the central delta, its population and prosperity increased greatly. This drew maritime trade, particularly from Song China, up from the lower delta and the coast. Through the twelfth century and into the thirteenth, this coastal region gained greatly in wealth and power.
The Trần ruler Minh Tông (1300-1357; r. 1314-1329) was adept, and his poetry reflects both the beliefs held and the efforts at consolidating his realm with its orthodoxy.
Minh Tông was known for his successful reign of Đại Việt with the assistance of many talented mandarins. Minh Tông was also the longest-reigning retired emperor in history of Vietnam when he acted as a regent and co-ruled with Hiến Tông and Dụ Tông. His death marked a significant turning point in the history of the Trần Dynasty, as the country began to decline and soon fell into troubled times.
Minh Tông was known for his successful reign of Đại Việt with the assistance of many talented mandarins. Minh Tông was also the longest-reigning retired emperor in history of Vietnam when he acted as a regent and co-ruled with Hiến Tông and Dụ Tông. His death marked a significant turning point in the history of the Trần Dynasty, as the country began to decline and soon fell into troubled times.
Muqaddimah (مقدمة) is an Arabic word used to mean "Prologue" or "The Introduction", to introduce a larger work
Muqaddimah (مقدمة) is an Arabic word used to mean "Prologue" or "The Introduction", to introduce a larger work
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