Embedded Files
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY( HOWARD GARDNER)
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY( HOWARD GARDNER)
The theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Howard Gardner, a pennysylvanian Professor of Education at Harvard University.He questioned the idea that intelligence is a single entity, that it results from a single factor, and that it can be measured simply through IQ tests.He argued that intelligence should be defined in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to solve problems, create products, and discover new knowledge in a diverse array of culturally valued activities.
Gardner developed the theory of Multiple Intelligences, which he brought to the world through his classic work, Frames of Mind, published in 1983, which orginally postulated seven types of intelligence.Since then, he has added a naturalistic intelligence and existential intelligence, thus the total number being nine. The nine types intelligence, as postulated by Gardner are,
1. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence
2. Verbal or Linguistic intelligence
3. Logico-Mathematical intelligence
4. Musical intelligence
5. Spatial intelligence
6. Interpersonal intelligence
7. Intrapersonal intelligence
8. Naturalist intelligence
9. Existential intelligence
Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence:- This type of intelligence is concerned with the set of abilities, talents and skills involved in using ones’s body or its various parts to perform skillful and purposeful movements.Individuals with a strong Kinesthetic intelligence internalize information through bodily sensation, respond quickly and intuitively to physical stimulus, demonstrates well developed motor skills and strive to learn by doing.Among professionals, dancers, atheletes and surgeons may be seen to demonstrate a high degree of bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence in their respective fields.
Verbal or Linguistic intelligence:- This type of human intelligence is responsible for all kinds of linguistic competence-abilities, talents and skills, available in human beings. Individuals with strong linguistic intelligence think and remember through internal language, apply rules of languages to new and different contexts, explain and express ones’s self verbally and in writing.This type of intelligence is most visible in professionals like lawyers, lecturers, writers and lyricists, and a number of other professionals exploiting linguistic intelligence.
Logico-Mathematical intelligence:- This type of intelligence is responsible for all types of abilities, talents and skills in areas related to logic and mathematics. It consists of the capacity to reason deductively , analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Individuals with strong logical intelligence seek order, reason scientifically, identify relationships, like completing puzzles, excel at calculating numbers, analyze abstract ideas and manipulate functions. Professionals like mathematicians, philosophers , physicists, etc.are found to exhibits this type of intelligence in abundance.
Musical intelligence:-This type of intelligence covers the abilities, talents and skills pertaining to the field of musics. It may be well demonstrated through one’s capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms.Acording to Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence. It is visible in a quiet large proportions in professionals like musicians and composers.
Spatial intelligence:-This type of intelligence is concerned with abilities, talents and skills involving the representations and manipulation of spatial configuration and relationship. For example, painters may be seen to demonstrate spatial intelligence through their use of space when applying pigments to a canvas. Professionals like land surveyors, architects, engineers,mechanics,navigators,Sculptures and chess players- who are found to rely upon the spatial intelligence in their own way.
Inter-personal intelligence:- It is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Individuals with strong interpersonal intelligence show heightened capability to jointly complete task with others, willingness to offer and accept input,ability to persuade others,an awareness and concern for others, a skill for meaningfully relating to others,seek the support of a group, enjoy collaborative work and display a winning personality. This type of intelligence is most visible among psychotherapists, teachers, sales people, politicians and religious leaders.
Intra-personal intelligence:- It shows the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fear and motivations. An individual with a high intrapersonal intelligence possess a realistic knowledge of his feelings,attitudes, outlook and shows an awareness of his thought process (metacognition). This type of intelligence is demonstrated by Yogis,Saints and masters of Zen.
Naturalist intelligence:- It enables human being to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. Students with strong naturalist intelligence are intrinsically organised,demonstrate an empathy with nature, like to make collection of materials,enjoy sorting and organising materials and respond to semantic mapping activities.
Existential intelligence:- Existential intelligence might be manifest in someone who is concerned with fundamental questions about existence, such as the meaning of the life, why we are born,why do we die, what is consciousness, or how did we get here etc.Individuals who exhibit the proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities possess this intelligence.
Components of Multiple Intelligence
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence provides a broad and comprehensive view of human abilities, extending from linguistic and logical-Mathematical abilities on the one hand, to intrapersonal and interpersonal abilities on the other. Out of nine types of intelligence first three, linguistical, logical-Mathematical and Spatial abilities have been accepted widely where as, last six types have been subject of great controversy as to whether they should be categorized as separate types of intelligence or as different talents.
Educational implications
1. The teaching or learning should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has a strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities.
2. Multiple intelligence theory suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a eide variety of ways using music,cooperative learning, ary activities, role play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more.
3. Another implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
4. If a teacher is having difficulty reaching a student in the more traditional linguistic or logical ways of instruction, the theory of multiple intelligence suggests several other ways in which the material might be presented to facilitate effective learning.
5. Nine kinds of intelligence would allow nine ways to teach,rather than one as students think and learn in many different ways.
6. The multiple intelligence theory provided educators with a conceptual framework for organizing and reflecting on curriculum assessment and pedagogical practices. It, in turn, will help educators to develop new approches that might better meet the needs of the range of learners in their classrooms.
7. All seven intelligence are needed to live life well. Teachers, therefore, need to attend to all intelligences, not just the linguistic intelligence and the logical-mathematical intelligence,that have been their traditional concern.
8. According to Gardner, children with different kinds of intellectual abilities learn in many different ways.Hence the curriculum set for an age level should be flexible and there should be many different forms assessment too.
9. Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligence in learning.
10. Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.
11. Assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.
Reference
1. Psychological Bases Of Educatio:- Dr.N.K.Arjunan
2. Advanced Educational Psychology:-S.K.Mangal
TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY
TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY
INTRODUCTION
Trait and Factor theory, also known as matching theory focuses on occupational choice and their enduring characteristics. It is a static approach to Career Development Theory. In the year 1909, Frank Parsons described his concept of Vocational Guidance in his book ‘Choosing a Vocation’. Back then interviews were the only tool available for matching. The term trait and factor comes from Parson’s original ideas, but evolved to include testing methods. Parson’s argued that three important things must be considered when looking at occupational choice: understanding yourself; requirements of different lines of work and true reasoning on their relationship.
As already stated, when Parsons and other career counselors began helping young people, they had very little resources available to them, e.g. testing methods, and so relied solely on interviewing clients. They would ask the client about interests, and how well the client performed with these (aptitude and achievement) and also about their values and personality. The counseling interview does continue to be a very valuable method of gathering information, however, as trait and factor theory evolved, more test methods were discovered. Psychometric tests were developed to include intelligence and aptitude tests; vocational tests; and personality inventories. All of these can be used by counselors applying the trait and factor theory to their clients.
The testing methods are an efficient way of extracting information from the client and this information is already very beneficially organised and so easier to use for reflection for both the interviewer and the client. However, it can also be argued that trait and factor theory focuses too much on testing methods. Whilst the theory focuses on learning about client’s traits, i.e. aptitudes, achievements, interests, values and personality, the theory merely focuses on these traits and factors. It does not really focus on the applicability of the theory as a career counseling approach. Therefore it can be argued that this approach to career guidance theory is too scientific to provide a holistic vision of a person’s career journey. Also the emphasis of this theory is on a one off matching session with the client.
It seems that although trait and factor theory is the oldest and most well known theory of career development, it has many limitations. Perhaps other theories, such as developmental theory, could explain a person’s career decisions more fully, as this approach focuses on seeing the client on various occasions in their lifetime and considers factors out with occupation, so gives a fuller account of their career decisions.The traits considered for occupational decisions are the right aptitudes, interests and personal abilities. In addition, a person should have knowledge of the available jobs and the status of the labor market. A person must also be rational in judging the traits and the labor market.
The theory of trait and factor was developed by Frank Parsons. Though initially known as the talent-matching approach, the concepts he proposed would later be referred to as the trait and factor theory. The three mentioned postulates of the trait and factor theory are used even in modern times. Clearly, the theory places a lot of emphasis on the importance of comparing an individual's traits, talents and attributes with the requirements of the career being pursued. By matching people with jobs that suit them best, they are highly likely to perform better, compared to a situation in which jobs are assigned arbitrarily. However, such talent-matching would not work without personal counseling, which is quite integral to career guidance and search. Self-analysis and counselor analysis are the two main principles of personal counseling on career choice.
¬ Basic premise: we are attracted to a given career by our particular personality and numerous variables that constitute our background
¬ Basic Principles
– Know oneself: aptitudes, abilities, interests, limitations
– Know the job market
– Apply “true reasoning” when matching oneself to an occupation
– The counselor provides information about client’s personality characteristics and what occupations would be a nice fit for the client based upon these characteristics
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRAIT & FACTOR THEORY
Career and guidance counselors use trait and factor theory to assist an individual in selecting a vocation. A number of different trait and factor theories exist, but all share one basic premise: the use of personal traits to match an individual with an occupation.
Factors
o Traits are relatively stable and enduring patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Traits are measurable in aptitude, achievement, personality and interests. A factor is a constellation, or pattern of traits, present in an individual's overall thinking, feeling and behaving. Through psychometric testing, vocational counselors can determine the occupation best suited to an individual's personality factors.
Unique Pattern of Traits
o J. Holland developed an occupational classification system that categorizes personality traits into six occupational divisions: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. Since the 1960s, Holland and others have found significant correlation between personality traits and occupations that fall within the six categories. In the 1990s, Holland expanded the trait patterns to consider life goals, values, self-beliefs and problem-solving styles.
Matching Traits and Factors with Vocations
Matching Traits and Factors with Vocations
o The trait and factor tests for vocation typically take place on a computer. Psychometric tests include DISCOVER by the American College Testing Program, SIGI PLUS by the Educational Testing Service and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory. These psychometric tests correlate traits and factors with vocations.
Better Job Fit Equals Better Success and Satisfaction
Better Job Fit Equals Better Success and Satisfaction
o Frank Parsons, known as the father of the vocational guidance movement, initiated the trait and factor theory in 1908. The theory holds that the better the fit between the individual and the occupation, the better the satisfaction and success.
Environmental Context
Environmental Context
o An individual develops and functions within an environmental context such as family, culture and society. The occupational environment most conducive to an individual's trait structure will make the best occupational fit.
Criticism
Criticism
o Although the trait and factor theory remains the most widely used approach by guidance and vocational counselors as of 2011, it has garnered significant criticism. Critics point out that the theory does not take into consideration changes in the individual and the environment over the individual's lifespan, gender differences, a cohesive underlying theory that links personality to vocation, multicultural influences, sexual orientation and its Western-centric assumption that choice of profession hinge on personal interests.
o Parsons' theory
Frank Parsons is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent-matching approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons' theory is the concept of matching.
Parsons states that occupational decision making occurs when people have achieved: an accurate understanding of their individual traits (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities) knowledge of jobs and the labour market rational and objective judgement about the relationship between their individual traits, and the labour market. This three-part theory still governs most current practice. The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be matched to an occupation that's a good fit. Parsons suggests that when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they perform best and their productivity is highest.
Seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with clients:
1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the vocational problem.
2. Self-analysis: Self-examination is done in private and under the instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded.
3. The client’s own choice and decision: this may show itself in the first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as guide.
4. Counsellor’s analysis: the counsellor tests the client’s decision to see if it is in line with the “main quest”.
5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and apprenticeships.
6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with logical and clear reasoning is critical at this stage.
7. General helpfulness: the counsellor helps the client to fit into the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision.
CONCLUSION
Much of Parsons’ work still guides career counselling today, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the market’s volatility means individuals must be prepared to change and adapt to their circumstances.
REFERENCES
o http://www.ehow.com/info_8083595_characteristics-trait-factor-theory.html on 13/11/14
o http://kirstylamprecht.wordpress.com/2011/03/14/trait-and-factor-theory-and-the-emphasis-on-test-methods/ on 13/11/14
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE
Each person has unique endowments, powers, responsibilities, talents, interests and capabilities based on innate, inherited and acquired characteristics. Inherited characteristics come from our genetic makeup and acquired characteristics come from education as our genetic endowments interacting with the environment. Innate capacities and characteristics are those inborn qualities that make us unique even from those who had the same parents and similar environmental influences
The combination and interaction of these three characteristics determines individual differences. We cannot change the innate and inherited qualities since they are given to us at birth, but the degree to which we are trained educated will determine how we will develop and realize our innate and inherited potentialities. The differences education and experience can cause are very great. As this is the only area we can significantly influence, we should do our best to see that each person is equipped to fully develop their minds, wills and hearts.
Educators can help learners to understand, develop and use their unique talents, interest, capabilities, environments and limitations to their and others’ benefit. Teachers can help their students know themselves, accept themselves, trust themselves and develop themselves by helping them know, accept, trust and develop their capacities. The ultimate authority and responsibility to accomplish these goals lies with the individual. As part of that process, we begin to recognize our abilities and build our capacity for loving, knowing and willing. We can help others understand, accept and work with their unique resources and provide the means, material and methods to develop them.
Our similarities are greater than our differences, but we are each unique. Science confirms the essential oneness and unity of the human race, but also that no two people are exactly alike, even identical twins. We are alike in that knowing, loving and willing are part of our natures and purpose, but each person has unique endowments, experiences and heredity. Our capacities, subjective realities and experiences are unique.
Definitions of individual difference
In psychology, the differences among individuals that distinguish them from one another and make each one a unique individual are denoted by the term individual differences. The individual differences are so marked that no progressive system of education can afford to neglect them. Thus the study of individual difference is of paramount importance in the field of education.
According to Dictionary of education by Carter B.Good (1959).
· Individual difference stands for “the variations or deviations among individuals in regard to a single characteristic or a number of characteristics”.
· Individual differences stand for “those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from another”.
Types or varieties of individual differerences
Whatever differences or variations exist among the human beings, may be generally classified into two broad categories, namely
· Physical or physiological differences,
· Psychological differences
While physical differences are related with the differences in terms of physical or physiological makeup of our bodies, the psychological makeup generate differences in terms of intellectual potentialities, interests, attitudes, aptitudes, emotional, social and moral development. These two broad classifications can be divided into specific sub-categories.
Physical differences: Individuals differ in height, weight, color of skin, structure and functioning of internal organs, facial expression, hair style and other such native or acquired physical characteristics
Mental differences: people differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and thinking, power of imagination, creative expression, concentration etc. In the field of general intelligences also we find tremendous difference between individuals. On the basis of these differences, they are classified into idiot, bright, and genius.
Differences in motor ability: There exists a wide difference in motor abilities such as reacting time, speed of action, steadiness, rate of muscular moment, and resistance to fatigue etc.
Differences in achievement: Differences exist in achievement and in knowledge even among individuals who have almost the same amount of intelligence and have been subjected to equal amount of schooling and experience.
Emotional difference: In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and amusement are prominent whereas, in some, negative emotions are more powerful. Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions. Some are emotionally stable and mature , while others are emotionally unstable and immature.
Differences in attitudes, beliefs and opinions: individuals are found to possess varying attitudes towards different people, groups, objects and ideas. Their attitudes may be positive, negative, or indifferent nature. They differ in respect of beliefs, opinions and ideas.
Differences in interests and aptitudes: variations occur among the individuals in relation to the specific tastes and interests. Some take interest in meeting people, attending social functions and in group activities, others feel happy in solitude. In similar way, people are found to have different aptitudes. Some have mechanical aptitude, while others have scholastic, musical or artistic aptitudes.
Learning differences: individual differences are found in the field of learning also. For e.g. one method of learning or memorization is more suitable, while for others, a different method suits. In the same way suitability of learning environment also depends upon the individual nature of the learner.
Differences in social and moral development: individuals differ in respect of their social and moral development. Some are found to be adjusted properly in the social situations and lead social life while others are socially handicapped, unsocial, or antisocial.
Factors effecting individual difference
Many factors cause individual differences. Among these intelligence, aptitude, creativity, social deprivation are comparatively important than others in educational point of view.
Intelligence: it was already indicated that there is a marked difference in the intellectual domain of pupils, which affects significantly their speed and depth in learning. Processing of information leading to cognitive development depends mainly on intellectual capacity. As such it is one of the most important factors contributing to individual differences.
Aptitude: pupils differ in their aptitude for learning. Those with greater aptitude for academic studies will show greater progress in learning.
Creativity: individual differences are found in the field of creativity also. Some people are endowed with high creative talents; while some others are very poor in their creative expression.
Social deprivation: learners belong to various levels of socio-economic status. This difference also is sure to cause individual differences in educational endeavors.
General Factors effecting individual difference
1. Physiological factors – the effects of drugs and alcohol are well-known to alter personality, to influence control and judgment.
2. Cultural influences – these norms affect individual self-concepts as well as social
adjustments.
3. Interaction between biological and social factors – An individual being a complex product of many interaction variables is really more than the simple sum of different influences
Individual difference and environmental factors influence human behavior
Individual differences mean the ways in which people differ from each other. Individuals have different abilities, personalities, learning experiences and attitudes. It is not surprising that they perceive work in different ways. Differences between individuals can be a source of developing creativity or the root of conflict and frustration. The needs of the individual should match with the needs of the organization so that the goals can be met and satisfaction can be achieved. It is important to emphasize individual differences and valuing diversity is a key driver in search for equality at work. With different backgrounds, ethnicity, gender and socialization, no one can expect all individuals to view an event in the same way.
The behavior of individuals / humans is the foundation of organizational performance. Understanding individual behavior is crucial for the effective management. Managers need to understand individual differences because they have an impact on the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of each member of an organization. Individual differ on the basis of personality, ethnic origin, physique, gender, early family experiences, social and cultural factors, attitudes, motivation, intelligence and abilities and perception.
PERSONALITY: Personality is the pattern of relatively enduring ways that a person feels, thinks and behaves. Personality is an important factor in accounting for why employees act the way they do in organizations and why they have favorable or unfavorable attitudes toward their jobs and organizations. Personality has been shown to influence career choice, job satisfaction, stress, leadership and some aspects of job performance. It is always easy and understandable when a personality is described in terms of traits. A trait is a specific component of personality that describes the particular tendencies a person has to feel, think, and act in certain ways, such as in a shy or outgoing, critical or accepting, compulsive or easy going manner.
The Big Five model of personality places five general personality places five general personality traits at the top of the trait hierarchy: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience.
The figure below explains the hierarchical organization of personality:
The below boxes show the Big Five dimensions of Personality:
Ø Extraversion
Ø Neuroticism
Ø Agreeableness
Ø Conscientiousness
Ø Openness to experience
Role of environment as a determinant of individual difference
Hereditary factors are transmitted to the offspring’s at the time of their conception by the immediate parents, through their respective chromosomes and genes. In this way, actually the role of heredity ends with conception. What go on inside the womb after conception are thus internal environmental influences. These forces play their role approximately for 9 months till the birth of the child and are in fact responsible in many ways for shaping the individual. In its true sense they differ not only from mother to mother but also from one child to another of the same mother.
A feotus gets its nourishment in the womb indirectly through the mother. Therefore, whatever the mother eats or drinks have an impact on the growth and development of the child. Not only is the quality of her diet but also the environment available to her during pregnancy quite important for the baby. If the mother remains tense, worried, anxious and emotionally upset or mentally perturbed, then it may eventually have an adverse effect on the growth and development of the baby.
Individual differences in children are thus certainly caused by the variations and differences existed in the physical and mental health of their mothers during pregnancy. It is said that about MAHABHARAT you might know ABHIMANYU had learnt the art of entering into CHAKRAVYUH when he was in her mother’s womb. It may seem an exaggeration but it is certain that what happens with the mother and child from the time of conception till birth is responsible for generating significant individual differences.
At the time of delivery also, the environment available to the mother and the child affects the well-being, growth and development of the child. Here, the individual differences may be caused by situations like Premature or mature delivery, normal delivery or a caesarean delivery, hygienic or unhygienic conditions, and general atmosphere at the time of delivery.
After birth, all things related to the external environment- physical, sociological, cultural and psychological-influence and affect each and every aspect of the growth and development of the child. In every step and all times, these external environmental factors influences available to each child are quite different in nature as well as in effect. One may argue that children of the same parent or family members of the same family have the same environment. But this is never possible no matter how hard one may try. Even a mother cannot claim paying equal attention, care and affection to all her children. While in most Indian homes male children get preferred treatment over female children, two even real brothers also may not be treated in the same way by their own parents. The same is as so true in the case of students being taught by, the same set of teachers in the same set-up. No teacher can provide exactly the same treatment to all his students.
Looking at from another angle, we find that there lies tremendous energy and strength in all types of environmental factors. They can mould, make build or destroy, help or obstruct any individual. We are just a toy, a product or a victim of these mighty forces. This is why when two children of the same parent or even identical twins are brought up in different environmental setup; they may turn up into two entirely opposite personalities. While a bad company or a negative may turn an innocent child into a devil, a devil or dacoit like Balmiki may turn a saint with the help of a positive and favorable environment. On this earth, there are positive and negative, favorable and unfavorable, healthy and unhealthy, proper and improper environmental conditions that can determine the directions of a child’s future. These conditions create big variations and differences among child as they grow up. Within the society we can find that the privileged, rich, educated, genius, belonging to the urban belt, flourishes, those belonging to the underprivileged suffer adversely in the cruel hands of unfavorable environmental forces. In this way, when in our society we cannot remove inequalities, disharmonies and differences, how can we expect the absence of variations or differences in the individualities of human beings.
Since all these inequalities in any society are always the creation of the environmental forces, it can be safely concluded that environment plays a very significant role in creating individual differences.
Physical / biological aspects
Most of the attributes related to our body make-up, its constitution and functioning are well decided and guided by heredity. Some children have blue eyes, others have black or brown. Certainly, this difference is actually brought out by their genetic differences. Same is the case with the color and texture of the skin and their hair height, facial outlook and appearances, blood types, finger prints etc. The son or the daughter of Japanese or a Chinese national can easily be recognized on the basis of physical structure inherited by them from their parents. An Afghan or a German boy or girl will definitely have well built body structure and tall stature in comparison to an average Indian boy or a girl. This difference is definitely created by means of their respective heredity contributions.
Besides such differences in the physical constitution, structure and body make-up, hereditary factors are also said to be the sole cause for some diseases like tuberculosis, cancer, hemophilia and other abnormalities. These diseases are the result of defect in genes and chromosome and are passed on to subsequent generations.
Along with other necessary physical aspects, the physiological setup of our mind is also well inherited by the child. However, sometimes the role of heredity as a determinant of physical constitution or bodily make-up becomes questionable. Especially in situations in genes of immediate parents are also transmitted to the offspring’s through genes. Therefore, it is possible that a child possesses certain traits that are transferable to one or more of his ancestors, even though they may not found in either of his parents.
Google Sites
Report abuse