language

According to H.A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of

human behavior.”

NATURE OF LANGUAGE:

1. Language is learnt: Learning of language is not an automatic process. Of course, it is a

behaviour but it is not type of behaviour like walking and crawling that comes to child in natural

way. Language by imitation and practice. Language is not possible without effort.

2. Language is related to the culture of society: Every language is related to culture of society

to which it belongs. The culture of the people naturally influences the language. Every language

is the product of society. We cannot separate language from the culture in which that language

exists. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture.

3. Language is species specific: Language is species specific. Only human beings have got the

gift of language. Of course, the other species do communicate but only human beings can make

use of language.

4. Language is species uniformed: Language is species uniformed. All human children are

capable of acquiring any language natively if they are provided the right kind of environment.

5. Language is a system: Each language is a unique system. The system of language consists

of sounds, structures and vocabulary. A person who wants to learn a new language will have to

learn new sounds, new structures and new vocabulary. The sound system of language differs

from language to language depending upon the culture to which a language belongs. Each

language has its own system of vocabulary. Thus each language is systematic. 2

6. Language is a system of systems: Each language is a system of systems. There are

phonological and grammatical systems in all languages. There are several sub systems with in a

language. The phonology of a language forms its own system as the various sounds function in a systematic way.

7. Language is a system of symbols: Each language works through symbols. Different words

used in a language are the symbols. They stand for certain things. The language will function welif its symbols are known both to the speaker and the person for whom they are being used.

For example the world cup has three sounds (K, Л, P) It is a symbol of English because a meaning is attached to it. But if we take the same three sounds like, K, Л, P they do form Puc, but that is not a symbol of English language as no meaning is attached to it.

8. Symbols of language are vocal: Different symbols are used in a single language. These

symbols are vocal. A language system does not exist in a vacuum. It is primary used in speech.

Only speech provides all essential signals of a language. There are other kinds of symbols which

cannot be called vocal symbols. For example, gestures and signal flags are visual symbols and

ringing of the bells and beating of a drum are auditory symbols. They do not form any language.

In language the sounds are produced through vocal organs. Reading and writing are no doubt

important. But speech is the basic form of language. A language without speech is unthinkable.

9. Language is a skill subject: Learning of a language is a skill subject. It is skill like swimming and cycling. We can not learn swimming or cycling just by studying rules. We can learn it by

practice. In the same way, we can learn a language y constant practice of that language. So a lot

of repetition for major linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing is required.

10. Language is for communication: Language is the best means of communication and self

expressions. Human beings express their ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through

language. In this way language is a means to connect past present and future.

11. Governed by a particular set of rules: Each language is governed by a particular set or rules.

For example English is S.V.O. language. In forming sentence, we put subject, then verb and after

verb we put object.

For example

He killed a snake.

Subject Verb Object

On the other hand, Hindi is S.O.V. language. First we put subject, he object and after object, we

put verb.

Usne saamp maara

Subject Object Verb

12. Symbols of language are Arbitrary: Here by arbitrary symbols we meant that there is no visual relationship between the language item and the object for which it stands. A man is called man traditionally. There is no visual similarity between the symbol ‘man’ and the actual man. We have not named it so on the basis of some logic or scientific principles. In English we say man, n ‘Hindi’ we say ‘manaushya’. None of them is better than the other. In fact, we call a man ‘man’ because people have agreed to use it in that sense.

13. Language is unique: Each language is unique because it has its own style of functioning. The sounds, vocabulary and structures of every language have their own specialty.

What is phonetics and why does it matter?

Phonetics is a science, which deals with pronunciation and structure of a language. It refers to the study of speech sounds.

Pronunciation includes the system of all the phonetic means of expression in speech – speech sounds,

word‐stress, and intonation. All of them are important and should not be underestimated in studying a language.

In order to understand how something works it is often useful to break it down into its constituent parts.

Phonetics can be divided into 3 main areas:

1. Articulatory phonetics – studies production of speech sounds;

2. Acoustic phonetics – studies transmission of sounds between speaker and a listener

3. Auditory phonetics – examines how sounds are perceived by a listener.

Phonetics vs. Phonology

Phonemes are the different sounds within a language.

Phonetics is often mentioned in relation to phonology which is a connected branch of linguistics. The difference between the two is in the approach to the sounds. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics, which deals with the physical reality of speech sounds. It studies the articulation and their acoustic qualities and the physical characteristics and sound perception

Phonology is primarily concerned with how we interpret and systematise sounds. It deals with the system and pattern of the sounds which exist within particular languages. The study of the phonology of English looks at the vowels, consonants and suprasegmental features (stress and intonation) of the language.

Significance of Phonetics

Phonetics is important not only for the scientists, but also for anyone who either teaches or learns a foreign language. One of the most important applications of phonetics is in the teaching foreign languages. It allows teachers to examine the differences between the sounds of source and target languages and explain this difference to learners. It also enables learners to better understand and speak the language they are learning.

Language (1899) Sweet says that: “without phonetics we can neither observe nor record the simplest phenomena of language.” His research has contributed to the science of phonetics in general and he is considered to be the father of what we know today as Received Pronunciation.

STRESS & INTONATION

Stress is defined as using more muscular energy while articulating the words. When a word or a syllable in word is produced louder, lengthier, with higher pitch or with more quality, it will be perceived as stressed. The prominence makes some syllables be perceived as stressed. Words including long vowels and diphthongs or ending with more than 1 consonant are stronger, heavier and stressed. English words have one or more syllables. A syllable is a complete sound unit. In words containing more than one syllable, one or sometimes two syllables prominent, that is , they receive the stress or accent. The more prominent of the syllable receives the primary accent and the other receives the secondary accent. While the primary accent mark comes above the syllable the secondary accent mark comes below the syllable. The accentual pattern of English words does not rigidly conform to any set of rules and one should learn to speak with the right accent by being exposed to the right models of speech.

English intonation: structures, functions and use

We call the melody of language intonation. Intonation refers to the total pattern of pitch changes, i.e., the rising and falling of the voice when a person is speaking, within an utterance. Intonation is another

important element of spoken English. It is the English intonation which makes English sound really English. Intonation makes speech meaningful.

English intonation adds the meaning of an utterance in two ways:

1. It shows the relationship of words within and between sentences;

2. It tells something about the feeling of the speaker.

In other words, different pitches may indicate different meanings for the same utterance. Different pitches help us express our feelings: happiness, sadness, surprise, annoyance, anger, and so on. In listening to the meaning of an utterance, therefore, we listen to how speakers talk as well as to what they say. The HOW and WHAT together give us the meaning of an English utterance. We now see the importance to use the appropriate intonation patterns when we speak. Otherwise, we may be sending messages using intonations that contradict what we want words to say. Intonation patterns that disagree with the content of the utterance may indicate doubt, sarcasm, or confusion.

English has two basic intonation patterns : rising and falling. When they go together, they can make a falling‐rising tone.

Intonation units are also called intonation‐groups, tone groups or tone‐units. An intonation unit usually corresponds to a sense group (or word group). An intonation unit may contain several syllables, some of them stressed and some unstressed. The last stressed syllable is usually a marker of the highest importance and has the focus stress. On this syllable, there takes place a change of pitch, either an upward or downward movement, or a combination of the two. A nucleus refers to the syllable in an intonation unit which carries maximal prominence.

PHYSIOLOGY OF SPEECH

Vocal Tract

Subglottal System

Sound in human language is produced by the regulation of airflow from the lungs through the throat, nose, and mouth. This airflow is altered in various ways by different aspects of this speech system.

The first major segment of the speech system is the subglottal system. The Larynx

The larynx is a mass of cartilage at the top of the trachea. It is commonly called the voicebox. Sounds that are produced with relaxed vocal folds are known as voiceless sounds, and sounds that are produced with tensed vocal folds are known as voiced sounds. Example z is voiced and s is

voiceless.

Above the Larynx

The area above the larynx consists of three main areas: the pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral

cavity. The pharynx consists of the area above the larynx and below the uvula. The oral cavity is the area from the back of the throat to the mouth. The major parts of the oral cavity that are used in speech production are the uvula, the velum, the tongue, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge, the teeth, and the lips. The uvula is that fleshy blob that hangs down in the back of the throat. The velum is the soft palate, and the alveolar ridge is a mass of hard cartilage behind the teeth. 7 The following graphic shows these major parts of the area, which is also known as the supraglottal system.

Summary

The air stream released by the lungs comes to the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. When we breathe out, the vocal cords are in a relaxed position. But if the tense vocal cords are brought together, the air stream, which comes from the lungs makes them vibrate, and we hear some voice. The air stream coming out of the larynx passes through the pharynx. Then goes the soft palate, which directs the air stream either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity. The soft palate is the remotest part of the palate from the teeth. Most of the palate is hard. This hard part of the palate is divided into two sections: the hard palate (which is the highest part), and the alveolar ridge.

The teeth ridge is very important for the English sound formation as many consonants here are formed with the tongue touching it. The lower teeth are not very important for making speech sounds, while the upper teeth take an active part in the production of many of them.

The most important organ of speech is the tongue. Phoneticians divide the tongue into four sections: the tip, the blade, the front, and the back of the tongue.

The lips can take up various positions while producing speech sounds. They can be firmly brought together or be apart, neutral, rounded or protruded forward.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS – Vowels and Consonants

The work of speech organs necessary for making speech sounds is called articulation.

According to the specific character of articulation, especially according to the presence or absence of the obstruction speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.

The most substantial difference between vowels and consonants is that in the articulation of vowels the air passes freely through the mouth cavity, while in making consonants an obstruction is formed in the mouth cavity or in the pharynx and the flow of the air meets a narrowing or complete obstruction. Vowels have no fixed place of articulation, the whole of the speaking apparatus takes part in their formation, while the articulation of consonants can be localized, an obstruction or a narrowing for each consonant is formed at a definite place of the speaking apparatus. In producing vowels all the organs of speech are tense, while in making consonants, the organs of speech are tense only in the place of obstruction. Voice prevails in vowels while in most consonants noise prevails over voice.

Vowels are syllable forming sounds while consonants are not, as a rule.

Monophthongs and Diphthongs

English vowel phonemes are divided into two large groups: monophthongs and diphthongs. This division is based on the stability of articulation.

A monophthong is a pure (unchanging) vowel sound. In its pronunciation the organs of speech do not change their position throughout the duration of the vowel; e.g. [i], [e], [æ], [o], etc. In most educated, standard, accents of English – not only in UK, but also around the world – this vowel requires a relatively steady tongue position.

Diphthongs are described as sequences of two vowels pronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the same syllable.

Thus, a diphthong is a complex sound consisting of two vowel elements pronounced so as to form a single syllable. In the pronunciation of a diphthong the organs of speech start in the position of one vowel and glide gradually in the direction of another vowel, whose full formation is generally not accomplished. The first element of an English diphthong is called the nucleus. It is strong, clear and distinct. The second element is rather weak. It is called the glide.

Linguistics

Linguistics, the systematic study of human language, lies at the crossroads of the humanities and

the social sciences. Much of its appeal derives from the special combination of intuition and rigor that the analysis of language demands. The interests of the members of the Department of

Linguistics and colleagues in other departments span most of the major subfields of linguistics:

 phonetics and phonology, the study of speech sounds;

 syntax, the study of how words are combined;

 semantics, the study of meaning; historical linguistics, the study of language change in

time;

 Computational linguistics, the modelling of natural language in all its aspects from a

computational perspective.

Studying linguistics is not a matter of studying many languages. Linguistics is a theoretical

discipline with ties to such areas as cognitive psychology, philosophy, logic, computer science,

and anthropology. Nonetheless, knowing particular languages (e.g., Spanish or Japanese) in some depth can enhance understanding of the general properties of human language.

Linguistics attempts to answer such questions as:

 how the mind enables us to produce and understand utterances

 how children acquire language

 how and why languages resemble and differ from each other

 how and why languages change over time, and how they are related

 how the categories of language relate to the world

 how language use varies across different social and cultural contexts

 how to make computers talk and 'understand' human languages