Written Expression

What is Written Expression?

Written expression is the ability to express oneself through writing. "Students use written expression to communicate new information, explain their knowledge and understanding of a topic, or to express themselves" (Gillespie & Graham, 2014). Students may use written expression in the form of notes, short answers, essays, journaling and more. Writing encompasses multiple cognitive skills in conjunction with linguistic and physical abilities. Students are required to plan and organize ideas and put their thoughts and ideas into written words. It is a critical component of education as students are often required to demonstrate their learning through writing. "Writing is also a tool for learning in which students use critical thinking and reflection to develop a deeper understanding of the content" (Gillespie & Graham, 2014). Writing is a skill that will be utilized into adulthood.

The Writing Process

Planning - Prior to writing, students generate ideas, complete research, and organize their thoughts based on the text's purpose.
Drafting - The focus of this step is to convey their ideas in sentences and develop a rough draft of their writing. Students should attempt to be using proper spelling and capitalization, but it is not the focus during this step.
Sharing/Evaluating - Students share their writing with peers and/or teachers to receive feedback. Students assess their writing and use the feedback to determine if their writing is going in the direction they planned.
Revising - Students make changes to content areas that need more clarification. They may reorganize ideas, omit or add text, or change wording/sentence structure.
Editing - Students check their writing for conventional skills such as spelling, grammar and punctuation. Reading through their work, students should ensure their work is readable and their intentions are clear.
Publishing - At the end of the writing process, students create a final product that can be shared with others in written or oral form. Students celebrate their accomplishments at the end of the writing process.

(Institute of Education Sciences, 2012).

Stages of Writing

Pre-Literate: Children begin this stage scribbling with no intended message. They continue to scribble and may create more intentional drawings with meanings. Then they begin to make scribbles in a left to right format intended to be writing with meaning. Finally, children start forming letter-like symbols that may unintentionally look like letters or numbers and minimal spacing.
Emergent: During this stage, children begin by stringing various letters together in a random order. Letters are often capitalized and similar letters may be written in different ways. Children then begin grouping letters together with spaces to symbolize words. Beginning sounds start to be used to label pictures. Students utilize their environment to copy letters and words with some letters in reverse.
Transitional: To begin, children write using the first letter sounds to represent a word. As students progress, they write words using the beginning and ending sound. Finally, students write words phonetically using beginning, middle and end sounds including vowels. Students use words they are familiar with and include more words spelled correctly. Spacing is used at times and words can be read.
Fluent: Students begin to write phrases to communicate their meaning and use the above skills they have learned. They transition to writing one or more sentences with some punctuation and known words are spelled correctly. Lastly, students use the 6 traits of writing which includes conventions, organization, voice, ideas, word choice and sentence fluency.

(WHPS, 2010).

Writing Conference

A writing conference is a conversation between a student and a teacher to offer support as the student works through the writing process (Anderson, n.d.). In a class of students, there are often a variety of needs to be met in writing. During the writing conference, instruction is differentiated and the teacher is able to tailor the conversation to the needs of the student ([Knatim], 2010). The purpose of a writing conference is to "teach the writer, not fix the writing" (Ball, 2017). The conferences allow students to develop an understanding of themselves as a writer.

Steps to Conduct a Writing Conference:

Initiate conversation by asked an open-ended question about the student's writing. Follow up on strategies or skills the student has been working on since the previous meeting. This step encourages students to discuss their writing at a higher level and provides the teacher with information to guide their support.
Provide complimentary feedback on the student's writing that is authentic. Identifying a specific skill that the student is doing well makes them feel good and acknowledges their strengths as a writer.
Teach one strategy or tip that the student is ready to learn. Show the student the steps of the new method or move they will be doing and ask the student to try it out with you. Having students demonstrate what you are asking them to do ensures they understand the skill they will be working on.
Close the conference by reviewing what was taught to the student. Provide the student with a physical reminder such as a sticky note or conference form that they can keep with them while writing.

(Ball, 2017).

Research Based Strategies

Collaborative Writing - Students work as a team with a peer to plan, draft, revise and edit a piece of writing. This approach has been shown to have positive effects on the quality of writing.
Setting Specific Product Goals - In addition to being provided the general purpose of their writing assignment, students are provided specific, attainable goals. Some specific goals might include focusing on structural elements or adding more ideas when making revisions. This strategy supports higher quality work and is effective for weaker writers.
Sentence Combining - Students learn to create more complex sentences using exercises to combine basic sentences. This has shown to be more effective than traditional grammar instruction.
Pre-Writing - Students engage in activities that help them produce and organize their ideas prior to writing. Activities may include gathering information on their topic or creating a visual representation of their ideas.
Study of Models - Students are given writing models that depict the type of writing that is the focus of instruction. Students analyze the writing and try to incorporate the structure and patterns of the writing into their own work.

(Graham & Perin, 2007).

Research Based Interventions

Program -Step Up to Writing
Description - Instructional strategies and writing lessons help students understand the importance of each step in the writing process. Beginning writers explicitly learn and practice each phase of the process. Common expectations and language for writing across every grade level builds confidence as students grow into more advanced writers and the process becomes fluid and automatic.
Tier - 1,2,3
Grade Level - K-12
Instruction Type - Whole Group, Small Group, Individual
(Voyager Sopris,n.d.).

Program - Ready Writing
Description - Interweaves the writing standards with grade-level science and social studies themes to develop thoughtful, analytical writers. Through teacher-led instruction that fosters independence, students engage actively with source texts, learning to research for evidence and acquiring writing strategies that help students become fluent, fluid writers.
Tier - 1,2,3
Grade Level - 2-5
Instruction Type - Whole Group, Small Group

(Curriculum Associates, n.d.)

Program - Jump Into Writing
Description - Helps educators establish a writing workshop and teach three key modes of writing, - narrative, informational, and opinion. Every lesson provides differentiation for EL support, intervention, and enrichment through small-group instruction.
Tier - 1,2
Grade Level - 2-5
Instruction Type - Whole Group, Small Group

(Zaner-Bloser, n.d.).

Program - Voyager Passport

Description - A supplemental intervention designed to accelerate learning for students needing to master priority reading skills. This reading intervention solution includes targeted instruction in word study, fluency, comprehension, vocabulary, writing, listening and speaking.

Tier - 2,3

Grade Level - K-5

Instruction Type - Whole Group, Small Group, Individual

(Voyager Sopris,n.d.).

Program - WritingCity
Description -A comprehensive, technology-enhanced program that combines explicit writing instruction with the necessary foundational writing skills and strategies. Throughout the curriculum students have frequent opportunities to engage in guided writing assignments with proofreading, revising, and editing. Provides explicit instruction in the writing process across all text type.
Tier - 1,2,3
Grade Level - K-5
Instruction Type - Whole Group, Small Group, Individual

(Writing City, n.d.).

Assessments

Formal

Title: TOWE - Test of Writing Expression
Author: Ron McGhee, Brian Bryant, Stephen Larson Diane
Description:
Age Range: 6 years 6 months - 14 years 11 months
Administration Time: Varies
Subtests: Two methods of assessment:
1. A series of 76 items that tap different skills associated with writing.
2. Requires students to read or hear a prepared story starter and use it as a stimulus for writing an essay.
Cost: $183
Link: https://www.proedinc.com/Products/6965/towe-test-of-written-expression.aspx

(Guzy, 2017).

Title: TOWL-4 - Test of Written Language
Author: Donald D. Hammill, PhD, Stephen C. Larsen
Description: A norm-referenced, comprehensive diagnostic test of written expression. It is used to (a) identify students who write poorly and, therefore, need special help, (b) determine students' particular strengths and weaknesses in various writing abilities, (c) document students' progress in special writing programs, and (d) measure writing in research.
Age Range: 9- 17 years 11 months
Administration Time: 60-90 minutes
Subtests:
Vocabulary
Spelling
Punctuation
Logical Sentences
Sentence Combining
Contextual Conventions
Story Composition
Cost: $288
Link: https://www.proedinc.com/Products/12850/towl4-test-of-written-languagefourth-edition.aspx

(Pro-Ed, n.d.).

Informal

Writing Portfolio - Students should be assessed by their personal progress. Developing a portfolio of writing demonstrates their strengths and allows teachers to see where they need more support. Teachers can target specific areas that the student can focus on to improve writing and watch the progress over time.
Self and Peer Assessment - Students assess their own work with support from the teacher to help them self-reflect and develop the skill to identify areas they can improve. As students make progress in discussing their writing and understanding appropriate feedback, students can work with peers to engage in a conference and give/receive feedback.

(Tow, 2019).

iPad Apps/Technology

Book Creater One: Book Creator is ideal for making all kinds of books, including children's picture books, photo books, comic books, journals, textbooks and more. Once the book is completed, students have the option to publish and/or share their work.
Cost: Free with in-app purchases
Link: https://apps.apple.com/app/id661166101

Me: A Kid's Diary by Tinybop: This app provides children an easy way to tell stories, talk about feelings, and map their world.
Cost: $3.99
Link: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/id1126531257?ign-mpt=uo%3D4

Pictello: An interactive storytelling app that lets students and kids make virtual storybooks with their own titles, photos, videos, and captions. A library of sample stories can help fuel the creative process.
Cost: $19.99
Link: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/pictello/id397858008

Read & Write: A comprehensive set of tools providing enhanced literacy support and accessibility to all, including a keyboard that can be used in all apps. Tools include text to speech, spellcheck and dictionary to name a few.
Cost: $19.99
Link: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/id934749270?ign-mpt=uo%3D4

Write About This: Images and prompts inspire kids of all ages to write, with increasing depth and complexity at higher levels. Students can create new prompts using their own images and ideas.
Cost: $3.99
Link: https://apps.apple.com/us/app/write-about-this/id601375313

(Reading Rockets, n.d.).

References

Anderson, C. (n.d.). What Is a Writing Conference? Retrieved from https://blog.heinemann.com/what-is-a-writing-conference.
Ball, L. (2017, August 4). Conferring: Writing Workshop Fundamentals. Retrieved from https://twowritingteachers.org/2017/08/04/conferring-writing-workshop-fundamentals/.
Curriculum Associates. (n.d.). Ready Writing. Retrieved from https://www.curriculumassociates.com/products/ready/writing.
Gillespie, A. & Graham, S. (2014). HotSheet 5: Effective Practices for Written Expression [PDF File]. Retrieved from https://www.teachingld.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/DLD_HotSheet5.pdf.
Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools [PDF File]. Retrieved from https://all4ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/10/WritingNext.pdf.
Guzy, Robert. (2017, April 19). Test of Written Expression (TOWE) [Prezi Presentation]. Retrieved from https://prezi.com/hws8fcoxdsxz/test-of-written-expression-towe/.
Institute of Education Sciences. (2012, June). Educator's Practice Guide: Teaching Elementary School Students to Be Effective Writers [PDF File]. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/practiceguide/writing_pg_062612.pdf.
[Knatim]. (2010, November 12). Precision Teaching: Writing Conferences Student and Teacher [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njLGV3drzRo.
Pro-Ed. (n.d.). TOWL-4: Test of Written Language–Fourth Edition. Retrieved from https://www.proedinc.com/Products/12850/towl4-test-of-written-languagefourth-edition.aspx.
Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Literacy Apps: Writing. Retrieved from https://www.readingrockets.org/literacyapps/writing.
Tow, D. (2019, March 8). Reframing How We Assess Student Writing. Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/article/reframing-how-we-assess-student-writing.
Voyager Sopris. (2021). Literacy Solutions Designed to Help ALL Students Succeed. Retrieved from https://www.voyagersopris.com/literacy.
WHPS. (2010). Developmental Stages of Writing [PDF File]. Retrieved from https://www.whps.org/uploaded/Offices/Curriculum_Instruction_and_Assessment/Families_-_Academics/Stages_of_Writing_Development.pdf.
Writing City. (n.d.). A Writing Curriculum for K-5th. Retrieved from https://www.writingcity.com/.
Zaner-Bloser. (n.d.). A True Writing Workshop Approach…With Some Welcome Surprises! Retrieved from https://www.zaner-bloser.com/writing/jump/how-it-works.php.

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