INSTRUMENT OF THE STUDY

 Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to:

1.) Compare the different types of data-gathering procedure

2.) Design the instrument of the study.

3.) Differentiate the two types of sampling methods.

4.) Apply knowledge acquired from the lesson.

MOST FREQUENTLY USED DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES:

1. Documentary Analysis – This technique is used to analyse primary and secondary resources that are available mostly in churches, schools, public or private offices, hospitals or in community, municipal and city halls. At times, data are not available or are difficult to locate in these places and the information gathered tend to be incomplete or not definite and conclusive.

2. Interview -the instrument used in this method is the interview schedule. The skill of the interviewer determines if the interviewee is able to express his/her thoughts clearly. It usually conducted with a group of people (around five to ten) whose opinions and experiences are elicited simultaneously. This type is called a focus group interview. Life histories  are needed in this area to dig in to the interviewee’s life experiences that is needed to answer the research study.

 TYPES OF INTERVIEW:

 a.) UNSTRUCTURED – This interview can be in the form of normal conversation or a freewheeling ideas.

b.) STRUCTURED – The conduct of questioning follows a particular sequence and has a well-defined content. The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the questionnaire but can clarify his answers.

c.) SEMI-STRUCTURED – There is a specific set of questions, but there are also additional probes that may be done in an open-ended or close-ended manner. The researcher can gather additional data from a respondent to add depth and significance to the findings.

3. OBSERVATION – The process or technique that enables the researcher to participate actively in the conduct of research to get a realistic data.

2 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

A. STRUCTURED – The researcher uses a checklist as a data collection tool. This checklist specifies expected behaviors of interest and the researcher records the frequency of the occurrences of these behaviors.

B. UNSTRUCTURED – The researcher observes things as they happen. The researcher conducts the observation without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed.

4. PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES- This technique applied for physiological measures involves the collection of physical data from the subjects. It is considered more accurate and objective than other data collection methods. Skills and expertise are needed to enable the researchers to use and manipulate the measurement devices like thermometer, stethoscope, weighing scale.

5.PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS These include personality inventories and projective techniques. Personality Inventories – self-reported measures that assess the differences in personality traits, needs or values of people. Projective Techniques – The subject is presented with a stimulus or tell what a stimulus appears to present. 6.QUESTIONNAIRE -This is the most commonly used instrument in research. It is a list of questions about a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response to each question and intended to be answered by a number of persons (Good 1984). It is less expensive, yields more honest responses, guarantees confidentiality and minimizes biases on question phrasing models.

Two types:

●       Structured questionnaire –provides possible answers.

●      Unstructured questionnaire – does not provide options.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

●      YES or NO type – answerable by Yes or No.

●      Recognition type – alternative responses are already provided and contains close ended questions. 

ex. Educational Qualification:  

       ___ Elementary graduate  

___ High School Graduate

       ___ College graduate c.

Completion type – respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary information. Questions are open ended.

 Example:   When I see a misbehaving student, I will, as a teacher ______________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________

d. Coding type – numbers are a assigned to names, choices and other pertinent data. This entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researchers, as the application of statistical formulas is necessary to arrive at the findings.

Example: On a scale of one (1) to ten (10), how will you rate the skills of your manager?

e. Subjective type – respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern. Ex. What can you say about the teachers who are deeply committed to their work? e.) Combination type – The questionnaire is a combination of two or more types of questions.

THINGS TO REMEMBER WHEN CREATING QUESTIONS: 

State questions in an affirmative manner than in a negative manner. 

Avoid ambiguous questions e.g those which contain words like many, always, usually or few. 

Avoid double negative questions (e.g Don’t you disagree with the idea that minors be not allowed to drink liquors?) 

Avoid doubled-barrelled questions like asking two questions in one question. Example: 

●      Will you be happy joining the Division quiz bee and be given additional examinations afterwards?

●      Do you want to run for the Student Council and aim to be a valedictorian?

SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN INSTRUMENT

1. LIKERT SCALE – It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with the statement.

2. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE. -The respondents are asked to rate concepts in a series of bipolar adjectives. It has an advantage of being flexible and easy to construct. Example: DESCRIPTION OF THE CLASS PRESIDENT

Always remember to:

Discuss the formulation of the instrument of the study: the type of instrument used: conceptual definition of the instrument with corresponding references; rationale or reasons why the researcher has decided to use the instrument; and description of the essential parts of the instrument. It will also increase the index of validity if references are cited.

The instrument used by other researchers are considered standardized when there is a high coefficient indices of reliability and validity.

When they are used for other studies, permission should be sought from the instrument originator/formulator/maker and appropriate citations must be placed. An instrument used for certain country or culture.

Validity and Reliability of the Guide Questions

Validity and Reliability are concepts used to evaluate the quality of the Guide Questions.

They indicate how well the guide questions measure what qualitative research intents to measure.

Validity is about the accuracy of a measure and reliability is about the consistency of a measure.

RESEARCH DESIGNS AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

RESEARCH DESIGNS APPLICABLE FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Ethnographic Research Design

2. Phenomenological Research Design

3. Grounded Theory Research Design

4. Historical Research Design

5. Case Study Research Design

6. Narrative Research Design

7. Mixed Qualitative Methods

POPULATION SAMPLE/ SAMPLING METHOD

At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to;

1. Understand the meaning of population sample.

2. Differentiate the two types of sampling methods.

3. Identify the different non-probability and probability sampling methods.

4. Apply knowledge acquired from the lesson.

Sampling is a systematic process of getting the sample.

 Non-probability Sampling Methods

1. Purposive Sampling Commonly Employed

2. Snowball Sampling

3. Quota Sampling

4. Convenience Sampling

5. Self-Selection Sampling

6. Judgmental Sampling

TYPES OF SAMPLING: SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.

2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.

For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.

There are four types of probability sampling techniques:

1. Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.

For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

2. Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback.

For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.

3. Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.

For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).

4. Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.

For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

Uses of probability sampling

There are multiple uses of probability sampling.

●      Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample appropriately represents the population.

●      Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For example, if Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the other type.

FOUR TYPES:

1. Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.

For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.

2. Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgmental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” are excluded from the sample.

3. Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

4. Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling is used for the following:

Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This method helps with the immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.

Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.

Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.

How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here are some steps expert researchers follow to decide the best sampling method

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

How should you write a good thesis conclusion?

Here are some suggestions;

Stick to the Question

Keep in mind to provide answers to your research problems in your conclusion chapter. Explain all the problems you have highlighted in the course of your research. Make sure you provide the readers with answers to these questions with reference to your research. This will satisfy the readers and will leave them with a sense of completeness.

Address your Hypothesis

You must keep in mind to address your hypothesis in your thesis conclusion chapter. There is always a hypothesis a student begins with while writing the dissertation. Make sure you either confirm that hypothesis or reject it in your conclusion chapter. You must give out a verdict in your conclusion. That is the whole point behind writing it. If you don’t give out a verdict, then your entire research is pointless.

Keep gathered information

You must keep in mind that your conclusion is the summary of your literature. You must not introduce any new information in your thesis conclusion. This will completely confuse all your readers since they will be expecting a verdict on your hypothesis, not a new theory. Not only that, it will also leave a bad impression on their mind.

Say No to Examples

Like we’ve mentioned in the last step, you should not introduce any new facts and information in your conclusion. Introducing new facts in your conclusion will only confuse your readers.

No First Person’s

Because your conclusions are all about summarizing all the previously mentioned facts; you must make sure not to use the first person while writing. You are simply drawing a conclusion and giving a verdict considering all the facts you have mentioned in your main body. There is no room whatsoever for personal opinions. Which is why you shouldn’t use the first person.

Know the Difference between Conclusion and Result

It is important that you understand the difference between a conclusion and a result. There’s a lot of difference between the two. Do not copy your result into the conclusion. In the result section, you write about what you have found while conducting your research. On the other hand, in the conclusion, you discuss your result and deliver a verdict.

Validate Your Sources

While recommending, you must make sure that your sources are credible and valid. Only recommend genuine sources and literature. Otherwise, it might leave a bad impression on the readers.

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PAPER

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL RESEARCH PAPER CONTENTS;

CHAPTER 1

●      The Problem & Its Background

●      Statement of the problem

●      Significance of the Study

●      Scope and Delimitations

CHAPTER 2

●      Review of Related Literature & Studies

●      Theoretical/Conceptual framework

●      Definition of terms

CHAPTER 3

●      Methods and techniques

●      Population of the Study

●      Research Instrument

●      Data Gathering Procedure

References:

BOOKS

1. Baraceros, E.L. (2015). Practical Research 1. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore

2. Zulueta, F.M.& Costales, Jr., N. B.(2005). Methods of

Research: Thesis Writing & Applied Statistics, Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.

WEBSITES

1. How to Write a Thesis Conclusion and Recommendation

 www.uniresearchers.co.uk

2. Types of Sampling for Social research

https://www.questionpro.com