Role of Translated Media in the Catalan Freedom Struggle

The translation of literary texts and politically charged songs into Catalan has played a vital role in shaping

and reinforcing Catalan national identity, particularly within the context of the region’s ongoing struggle

for cultural and political autonomy. By examining the translation of iconic works such as Don Quixote and

the adaptation of songs by artists like Víctor Jara, this essay explores how translation serves as a powerful

tool of cultural affirmation and resistance against dominant narratives. Through the lens of translation

studies, particularly André Lefevere’s concept of translation as rewriting and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s

notion of the politics of translation, the essay analyzes how these translations not only preserve the

distinctiveness of Catalan language and culture but also recontextualize and reinterpret these works to align

with the values and aspirations of the Catalan people. In doing so, translation becomes a means of asserting

Catalan identity, encouraging solidarity with global resistance movements, and challenging the cultural

hegemony of the Spanish state.

1) Don Quixote, written by Miguel de Cervantes and first published in two parts in 1605 and 1615, is

considered one of the most important works in Western literature. The novel follows the adventures of a

middle-aged man named Alonso Quixano, who becomes so enamored with tales of chivalry that he decides

to become a knight-errant, adopting the name Don Quixote. Accompanied by his loyal squire, Sancho

Panza, Don Quixote sets out on a series of misadventures, mistaking windmills for giants and inns for

castles, in his quest to revive chivalry and protect the helpless. It was written at a time when Spain was

grappling with the decline of its Golden Age. The novel has become a cornerstone of Spanish literature and

a powerful symbol of Spanish identity. Don Quixote, as a character, has come to symbolize many traits

associated with the Spanish national character. His character embodies a kind of noble idealism that, even

when misguided, reflects a deep commitment to values such as honor, dignity, and loyalty—qualities that

have historically been celebrated in Spanish culture. Spain, as a nation, has historically been marked by

grand ambitions and dreams, from the Reconquista to its imperial conquests in the Americas. However,

these dreams often collided with harsh realities, leading to periods of decline and introspection. Don

Quixote’s misadventures reflect this duality of the Spanish psyche, where the pursuit of lofty ideals often

leads to disillusionment. This cultural embrace of quixotism highlights a national pride in being willing to

fight for ideals, no matter how impractical they may seem. Moreover, Miguel de Cervantes, through the

creation of Don Quixote, became a national literary icon, and his work is celebrated as a pinnacle of Spanish

cultural achievement. The novel’s widespread influence established Spanish literature on the global stage,

contributing to a sense of pride in Spain’s cultural and intellectual contributions

The first complete translation into Catalan of Don Quixote was also printed in Barcelona in 1882 entitled

L’Ingeniós Hidalgo Don Quixot de la Mancha. Written by Miquel de Cervantes Saavédra and translated

into Catalan by Mr. Eduard Tàmaro, Bachelor of Law. As well as a lawyer, Tàmaro (1845‒1889) was a

historian and regularly contributed work to publications such as La Renaixença and La Il·lustració Catalana.

The translation of Don Quixote into Catalan has played a significant role in the context of Catalan

nationalism. This impact is particularly noteworthy given the novel's status as a foundational text of Spanish

literature and its symbolic association with Spanish cultural identity. Catalunya is a region in northeastern

Spain with its own distinct language and culture with its roots dating back to the early 10th century. Don

Quixote was first published in the early 17th century, a period during which Spain was emerging as a

powerful unified state under the rule of the Habsburgs. At this time, the Kingdom of Aragon, which included

Catalunya, was increasingly integrated into the centralized Spanish monarchy, and Castilian Spanish was

becoming the dominant language of administration, literature, and culture across the Iberian Peninsula. For

Catalunya, this period marked the beginning of a gradual decline in the use of the Catalan language in

public life, a trend that would be exacerbated by later political developments. By the 19th and 20th

centuries, the marginalization of Catalan in favor of Spanish was a source of deep resentment for many

Catalans, particularly as the Catalan Renaixença (Renaissance) movement sought to revive Catalan

language and culture. Within this context, the translation of Don Quixote into Catalan took on a significant

symbolic significance.

Translating Don Quixote into Catalan was an act of cultural affirmation because of its place as a symbol of

Spanish national identity. By translating this iconic work into Catalan, the translators and the broader

Catalan cultural movement asserted that Catalan was as legitimate a language of high culture as Castilian

Spanish. Translating one of Spain’s most important cultural products into Catalan served as a way of

reclaiming a shared cultural heritage on Catalunya's terms. It was a declaration that Catalunya was not

merely a region within Spain, but a distinct cultural and linguistic community with its own identity.

André Lefevere’s concept of translation as rewriting, discussed in his influential work Translation,

Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame, provides a critical framework for understanding how

translation can be an act of cultural affirmation. Lefevere argues that translation is not a neutral or purely

linguistic activity but rather a form of cultural and ideological manipulation where the translator actively

shapes the text to reflect the values, aspirations, and needs of the target culture. Lefevere states, “Translation

is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting, and it is potentially the most influential because it is

able to project the image of an author and/or a (series of) work(s) in another culture” (Lefevere, 1992).

This perspective is particularly relevant when considering the translation of Don Quixote into Catalan. As

a cornerstone of Spanish literature and a powerful symbol of Spanish national identity, Don Quixote carries

significant cultural weight. By translating this iconic work into Catalan, the translators engage in a

deliberate act of rewriting that recontextualizes the novel within a Catalan framework. This act of

translation is not merely about linguistic conversion; it is a form of cultural assertion, aiming to affirm the

legitimacy and vitality of Catalan as a language capable of expressing high culture and intellectual

achievement.

According to Carme Riera, Don Quixote’s themes of idealism, struggle, and the tension between reality

and imagination resonate deeply with the Catalan experience, particularly in the context of its national

aspirations. The figure of Don Quixote, who battles windmills thinking they are giants, can be seen as a

metaphor for the Catalan struggle against what is perceived as the overwhelming forces of Spanish

centralism. The translation thus takes on symbolic importance, aligning the character’s quixotic endeavors

with Catalunya’s own quests for recognition, autonomy, and cultural survival. Although, as Catalan

nationalism began to assert itself, identifying Catalunya as a separate nation, “Don Quixote” ceased to be

considered a national classic within Catalunya. The work, written in Spanish and embodying Castilian

values, did not align with the nationalist sentiment that sought to emphasize the distinctiveness of Catalan

culture, language, and history.

Catalan nationalists like Valentí Almirall critiqued “Don Quixote” for encapsulating the Castilian character,

which they viewed as antithetical to the Catalan ethos. The book's portrayal of a quixotic idealism was seen

as a reflection of the impractical and unrealistic mindset that nationalists attributed to the Castilian identity.

Catalan nationalists often contrasted the perceived Castilian traits embodied by Don Quixote—such as

irrational idealism and pride—with what they viewed as the more pragmatic and modern characteristics of

the Catalan people.

2) General Francisco Franco's rule, which lasted from 1939 until his death in 1975, had a repressive impact

on Catalunya, particularly concerning the Catalan language and culture. Franco's regime aimed to

consolidate a unified Spanish identity, which meant the suppression of regional identities, languages, and

cultures, especially those of Catalunya, the Basque Country, and Galicia. Catalan, which had been a vibrant

and widely used language before the Spanish Civil War, was banned in public administration, education,

media, and even in religious services. The regime viewed Catalan as a threat to national unity and its

suppression was part of a broader policy to eliminate regional languages and enforce Castilian Spanish as

the only official language of Spain. Cultural censorship under Franco was severe, with books, newspapers,

and other media in Catalan being banned or heavily censored. The publication of books in Catalan was rare,

and those that were published often had to undergo rigorous censorship to ensure they did not contain any

subversive content. Even translations of foreign works into Catalan were subject to censorship, as seen in

the case of “The Postman Always Rings Twice”, which, despite being a literary work, faced cuts that aligned

with the totalitarian regime's moral and political standards. This led to a significant decline in the public

use of Catalan and a generation of Catalans who were raised without formal education in their native

language. Despite these efforts, the Catalan language and culture survived due to the perseverance of the

Catalan people. Catalan was maintained in private and in cultural and intellectual circles, albeit in a more

subdued and underground manner. Literary works, including censored translations, played a critical role in

keeping the language alive during the dictatorship.

Manuel de Pedrolo's 1964 Catalan translation of James M. Cain's “The Postman Always Rings Twice” faced

significant censorship under Franco's regime. The censorship targeted explicit content, particularly sexual

elements, which were central to the novel's raw and intense atmosphere. This led to substantial alterations

in the text, diminishing the impact of Cain's original work. The following quote emphasizes how the

censorship process targeted key aspects of the novel, altering its tone and the readers’ experience

“La censura franquista va suprimir escenes senceres del llibre, especialment aquelles de caràcter sexual,

i va reduir notablement la cruesa que caracteritza l’obra de Cain. Aquesta intervenció va canviar el to de

la novel·la i va influir en la comprensió que en tenien els lectors catalans.”

(Franco's censorship deleted entire scenes from the book, especially those of a sexual nature, and

significantly reduced the crudeness that characterizes Cain's work. This intervention changed the tone of

the novel and influenced the understanding that Catalan readers had of it.) [Jordi Cornella-Detrell]

Even after Franco’s death in 1975, the censored versions of “The Postman Always Rings Twice” continued

to circulate without significant changes. This persistence highlights how the inertia of the post-Franco

publishing industry contributed to the continued circulation of censored texts, maintaining the distortions

created by censorship.

“Després de la mort de Franco, les versions censurades van continuar reeditant-se sense gairebé cap

modificació. Això reflecteix la inèrcia del sector editorial, que no es va atrevir a corregir les distorsions

imposades per la censura.”

(After Franco's death, the censored versions continued to be reissued with almost no modifications. This

reflects the inertia of the publishing sector, which did not dare to correct the distortions imposed by

censorship.) [Jordi Cornella-Detrell]

There were eventually efforts to retranslate the novel to restore the original content, but these efforts faced

significant challenges. These included economic constraints and the ingrained practices of the publishing

industry, which often led to only partial restorations or continued omissions. The continued publication of

censored versions has significant implications for cultural memory. Many readers were unaware that they

were reading censored texts, leading to a skewed understanding of the works and their themes. The

translation of “The Postman Always Rings Twice” into Catalan during Franco's regime, despite being

heavily censored, was a significant step in preserving the Catalan language and culture at a time when both

were under severe threat. Franco's dictatorship sought to suppress regional languages like Catalan, banning

their use in public life and media, which included severe restrictions on literary works.

However, translations like those done by Manuel de Pedrolo were part of a broader resistance movement

that sought to keep the Catalan language alive. Even though these translations were censored, their existence

alone helped maintain the use of Catalan in literature and offered a form of cultural continuity. These works

were crucial in ensuring that the Catalan language did not disappear entirely from literary and cultural life,

offering Catalan speakers access to international literature in their native language, albeit in a modified

form. This act of cultural defiance was part of a larger effort by Catalan intellectuals and publishers to resist

the regime’s attempts to eradicate Catalan identity. The persistence of publishing in Catalan, even under

such repressive conditions, laid the groundwork for the cultural revival that followed the end of the

dictatorship. These translations were instrumental in the broader strategy to prevent the complete erasure

of Catalan culture during Franco’s rule. The use of translations as a vehicle for cultural preservation reflects

the resilience of the Catalan literary community in the face of oppression.

3) Víctor Jara, the Chilean folk singer and activist, significantly impacted various global resistance

movements, including those in Catalunya. His music, deeply rooted in the struggles for social justice and

against oppression, inspired the Catalan people, who have long fought for their own cultural and political

autonomy. As mentioned before, during the Franco dictatorship, Catalunya's cultural identity was

suppressed, and the region's language and traditions were under constant threat. In this context, Jara's songs,

which often addressed themes of freedom, human rights, and resistance against tyranny, became a source

of inspiration. Songs like “Te Recuerdo Amanda” and “El Derecho de Vivir en Paz” echoed the sentiments

of many Catalans who identified with the broader global struggle against fascism and dictatorship.

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, who is an Indian scholar, literary theorist, and feminist critic, in her “The

Politics of Translation”, argues that translation involves engaging deeply with the “rhetoricity” of the

original text—its cultural and linguistic nuances—allowing the translator to resist dominant cultural

narratives by preserving the distinctiveness of the original voice. The translation of politically charged

songs by figures like Víctor Jara into Catalan can be seen as an embodiment of Spivak's ideas. These

translations are not just linguistic conversions; they are acts of solidarity that transcend linguistic boundaries

and align with Catalunya's broader struggle for cultural and political autonomy. By translating Jara's songs

into Catalan, translators engage in what Spivak describes as an “intimate act of reading” where the act of

translation becomes a means of resisting the cultural erasure imposed by dominant narratives—in this case,

the Spanish state’s suppression of Catalan identity. Spivak’s notion that translation should “surrender to

the text” to preserve its rhetorical and cultural specificity echoes strongly here. Translators of Jara's music

into Catalan must navigate the delicate balance between making the songs accessible to a Catalan-speaking

audience while retaining the political and cultural force of the original. This process aligns with Spivak's

view that translation is a means of asserting cultural identity and resisting homogenization, as the

translations not only bring Jara's messages of resistance and solidarity into the Catalan context but also

reinforce the ongoing struggle for Catalan autonomy and cultural survival.

Socialism, on the other hand, has long been intertwined with Catalan identity, particularly due to the region's

history of labor movements, its fight for autonomy, and its resistance to authoritarianism. In the early 20th

century, Catalunya was a hub for anarchism and socialist thought. The region was industrially advanced

compared to other parts of Spain, which harbored a strong working-class movement. The rise of anarchist

and socialist groups like the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and Federación Anarquista Ibérica

(FAI) made Catalunya a center for revolutionary activity, particularly during the Spanish Civil War (1936-

1939). These groups played a significant role in the fight against Franco's fascist forces, and their influence

cemented socialism as a key part of the Catalan resistance. Hence, the use of Jara's music in rallies and

protests further strengthened the ties between the Chilean and Catalan movements, as both communities

saw their struggles reflected in each other's experiences. For instance, in “El Derecho de Vivir en Paz,”

Víctor Jara expresses themes that deeply mirrors the Catalan national movement. The song's chorus, “El

derecho de vivir en paz,” meaning “The right to live in peace” directly parallels Catalunya's aspirations for

peace, autonomy, and the preservation of their cultural identity. Another line, “Indochina es el lugar más

allá del ancho mar, donde revientan la flor con genocidio y napalm” which translates to “Indochina is the

place beyond the wide sea, where they shatter the flower with genocide and napalm,” can be seen as a

metaphor for the suffering of oppressed people under a fascist regime. This imagery of destruction and the

yearning for peace is something that many in Catalunya could relate to during their own struggles for

freedom.

Another example is the song “Plegaria a un labrador” (Prayer to a Laborer): This song is a powerful call

to action, urging the working class to rise up against oppression. The lyrics emphasize the dignity and

strength of those who toil the land, making it a rallying cry for those seeking justice and self-determination.

One excerpt from the song is the following: “Levántate y mírate las manos, para crecer, estréchala a tu

hermano.” (Rise up and look at your hands, to grow, reach out to your brother.) There is also the song

“Luchín”: This song tells the story of a poor child, Luchín, whose innocence and resilience in the face of

hardship symbolize hope for a better future. The narrative of marginalized individuals fighting against their

circumstances is a theme that many Catalans, who have faced cultural and political marginalization, relate

with. One excerpt from the song is the following: “Luchín, niño de pocas luces, con una esperanza en el

corazón.” (Luchín, a child with few lights, with hope in his heart.) This imagery of a child holding onto

hope despite adversity can be seen as a metaphor for the persistence of the Catalan people in their pursuit

of freedom.

After Franco’s death in 1975 and the subsequent transition to democracy, socialist and leftist parties, such

as the Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya (PSC), became major political forces in the region. These parties

have been instrumental in advocating for Catalan autonomy, workers’ rights, and social welfare programs.

The modern Catalan independence movement, while diverse in its political affiliations, has strong roots in

leftist ideology, emphasizing social justice, egalitarianism, and anti-fascism as core components of its

identity. The connection between socialism and Catalan identity is also reflected in the region’s ongoing

struggle for greater autonomy or independence from Spain. Many Catalan nationalists see their struggle as

not only a fight for national identity but also for the establishment of a more just and equitable society. The

emphasis on social welfare, public services, and workers’ rights is a significant part of Catalunya’s political

discourse, often contrasting with the more conservative or neoliberal policies at the national level in Spain.

Moreover, the influence of Jara's music is still evident today. In 2023, Barcelona honored him with a concert

during the La Mercè festival, being a living testament to his enduring legacy and the connection between

his ideals and the Catalan cause. This concert was not only a tribute to Jara but also a reminder of the

ongoing fight for democracy and human rights in Catalunya and beyond.