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Nouns, articles & word formation
Nouns, articles & word formation
Nouns
Nouns
Nouns are: abstract (love, freedom, etc.), proper (Joe, Europe, etc.), group (family, team, crowd, group, etc.) or common (chair, hat, boy, etc.).
Most nouns which refer to jobs, social status, etc. have the same form for men and women e.g. doctor, teacher, etc.
Others have different forms:
actor - actress king - queen
(bride) groom - bride monk - nun
duke - duchess prince - princess
hero - heroine waiter - waitress
host - hostess widower - widow, etc.
Существительные бывают: абстрактными (любовь, свобода и т. д.), собственными (Джо, Европа и т. д.), групповыми (семья, команда, толпа, группа и т. д.) или общеупотребительными (стул, шляпа, мальчик и т. д.).
Большинство существительных, относящихся к работе, социальному статусу и т. д., имеют одинаковую форму для мужчин и женщин, например. врач, учитель и т.д.
Другие имеют другие формы:
актер - актриса король - королева
(невеста) жених - невеста монах - монахиня
герцог - герцогиня принц - принцесса
герой - героиня официант - официантка
хозяин — хозяйка, вдовец — вдова и т. д.
Countable Nouns / Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns which we can count.
They have singular and plural forms. We usually form the plural by adding -s.
Irregular Plurals: man - men, woman - women, foot - feet, tooth - teeth, louse - lice, mouse - mice, child - children, goose - geese, ox - oxen.
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural. These are:
a) some kinds of animals (sheep, deer) and fish (trout, cod, salmon, etc.)
e. g. A sheep was grazing in the field. Some sheep were grazing in the field.
b) the words aircraft, spacecraft, hovercraft, etc.
e. g. One hovercraft was approaching the port.
Two hovercraft were appoaching the port.
c) some nouns ending in -s: crossroads, means, series, species, works, etc.
e. g. A car is a means of transport. Cars are a means of transport.
Countable nouns:
can take singular or plural verbs.
e. g. The window is open.
The windows are open.
always go with a/an/the/my, etc. in the singular.
e. g. I paid the bill. This is my pen.
can be used alone or with some/any/many/few in the plural.
e. g. I love apples.
I bought some apples to make a pie.
Исчисляемые существительные — это существительные, которые мы можем посчитать.
Они имеют формы единственного и множественного числа. Обычно мы образуем множественное число, добавляя -s.
Неправильное множественное число: мужчина - мужчины, женщина - женщины, ступня - ноги, зуб - зубы, вошь - вши, мышь - мыши, ребенок - дети, гусь - гуси, вол - волы.
Некоторые существительные имеют одинаковую форму в единственном и множественном числе. Это:
а) некоторые виды животных (овцы, олени) и рыбы (форель, треска, лосось и др.)
н. пр. В поле паслась овца. Несколько овец паслись в поле.
б) слова самолет, космический корабль, корабль на воздушной подушке и т. д.
н. пр. Одно судно на воздушной подушке приближалось к порту.
Два корабля на воздушной подушке подходили к порту.
в) некоторые существительные, оканчивающиеся на -s: перекресток, средство, ряд, вид, произведение и др.
н. пр. Автомобиль – это средство передвижения. Автомобили - это средство передвижения.
Исчисляемые существительные:
могут принимать глаголы в единственном или множественном числе.
н. пр. Окно открыто.
Окна открыты.
всегда используйте a/an/the/my и т. д. в единственном числе.
н. пр. Я оплатил счет. Это моя ручка.
могут использоваться отдельно или с some/any/many/few во множественном числе.
н. пр. Я люблю яблоки.
Я купил несколько яблок, чтобы сделать пирог.
Some nouns can be used as countable or uncountable, with a difference in meaning.
Would you like a glass of lemonade?
Tina can't see without her glasses. (spectacles)
The vase is made of glass. (the material)
He went to the newsagent's to buy a paper. (newspaper)
He wrote my phone number on a piece of paper. (the writing material)
Don't forget to bring all the necessary papers. (documents)
Susan has got short, dark hair. (all the hair on her head)
There is a hair in my soup!
I've bought an iron as a wedding gift for Tom and Jane. (for ironing clothes)
This chair is made of iron. (the material).
You shouldn't eat too much chocolate.
We gave her a box of chocolates.
Your room is a mess!
We haven't got enought room to put you up. (space)
The table is made of wood. (the material)
A lot of wolves live in the woods. (forest)
Mr Davis has a lot of experience in accounting. (length of time doing it)
He had a few unpleasant experiences while living abroad. (events)
I haven't got any time to lose.
How many times did Rick phone? (occasions)
Uncountable nouns are nouns which we cannot count. They do not have different plural forms. Uncountable nouns include:
a) many types of food: flour, yoghurt.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs
Here's a list of the modal verbs in English:
can
could
may
might
will
must
shall
should
ought to
Modals are different from normal verbs:
1. They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.
2. They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').
3. They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').
First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is happening / will happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.
For example:
It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!
Talking about the present
Talking about the present
must / might / could / may / can't + infinitive
must / might / could / may / can't + infinitive
For example:
I am waiting for Julie with another friend, David.
I ask: 'Where is Julie?'
David guesses:
She must be on the bus. (I'm fairly sure this is a good guess)
She might come soon. (maybe)
She could be lost. (maybe)
She may be in the wrong room. (maybe)
She can't be at home. (I'm fairly sure this isn't true)
Notice that the opposite of 'must' is 'can't in this case.
Will / won't
Will / won't
We use will and won't when we are very sure:
She'll be at work now.
Should / shouldn't
Should / shouldn't
Should and shouldn't are used to make an assumption about what is probably true, if everything is as we expect:
They should be there by now.
It shouldn't take long to drive here.
This use of should isn't usually used for negative events. Instead, it's a better idea to use will:
The underground will be very busy now (not: 'should be').
Can
Can
Can is used for something that is generally possible, something we know sometimes happens:
Prices can be high in London.
Can is not used to talk about specific possibilities:
He could be on the bus (not: 'can be').
Using modal verbs to talk about the past
Using modal verbs to talk about the past
must / might / could / may / can't + have + past participle
must / might / could / may / can't + have + past participle
must have + past participle
might / might not have + past participle
could / couldn't have + past participle
may / may not have + past participle
can't have + past participle
For example:
You: Where was Julie last night?
David:
She must have forgotten about our date.
She might have worked late.
She could have taken the wrong bus.
She may have felt ill.
She can't have stayed at home.
Will / won't + have + past participle
Will / won't + have + past participle
Will and won't / will not + have + past participle are used for past certainty (compare with present use of 'will' above):
The parcel will have arrived before now.
Should + have + past participle
Should + have + past participle
Should + have + past participle can be used to make an assumption about something that has probably happened, if everything is as we expect (compare with present use of 'should' above):
The train should have left by now
Could
Could
We can use could + infinitive to talk about a general possibility in the past (compare with the use of 'can' above):
Prices could be high in the sixteenth century.
This is not used to talk about specific possibilites in the past (instead we use could + have + past participle):
He could have been working late (not: 'could be'. As this is a specific possiblity, 'could be' is present tense)
Ability
Ability
We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.
For example:
She can speak six languages.
My grandfather could play golf very well.
I can't drive.
hen we talk about ability, we mean two things.
First, we mean general ability. This is something that once you have learned you can do any time you want, like being able to read or swim or speak a language, for example.
The other kind of ability is specific ability. This mean something that you can or can't do in one particular situation. For example, being able to lift something heavy, or find somewhere you are looking for.
Present:
Present:
can / can't (for both general and specific ability)
I can play the piano.
She can speak English.
He can't drive – he's too tired.
We can't come now.
Past:
Past:
could / couldn't (for general ability)
I could read when I was four.
She could speak French when she was a child, but now she has forgotten it.
He couldn't dance at all until he took lessons.
My grandfather couldn't swim.
was able to / couldn't (for specific ability)
When the computer crashed yesterday, I was able to fix it.(not 'I could fix it')
She was able to pass the exam, even though she hadn't studied much.(not 'she could pass')
He called us because he couldn't find the house.
I couldn't open the window.
could + have + past participle (an ability someone had in the past, but didn't use)
I could have played the piano well but I didn't practise enough.
We could have come earlier.
She could have studied law, but she preferred to become a secretary.
Future:
Future:
will / won't be able to (general ability)
At the end of the course, you will be able to make your own website.
He won't be able to speak Japanese in a week! It will take months.
can / can't (specific ability)
I can help you tomorrow
I can't come to the party
Obligation and Advice
Obligation and Advice
We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary, or to give advice.
For example:
Children must do their homework.
We have to wear a uniform at work.
You should stop smoking.
We can use have to + infinitive, must + infinitive and should + infinitive to express obligation (something you have to do).
Be careful about the difference between mustn't and don't have to!
Mustn't means it's not allowed, or it's a bad idea:
You mustn't eat so much chocolate, you'll be sick
Don't have to means you don't need to do something, but it's fine if you want to do it:
I don't have to get up early at the weekend(of course, if I want to get up early, that's fine, but I can stay in bed if I want).
Permission
Permission
We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use modal verbs to say something is not allowed.
For example:
Could I leave early today, please?
You may not use the car tonight.
Can we swim in the lake?
Habits
Habits
We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.
For example:
When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
John will always be late!
Some exercises with modal verbs
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