That emotions typically have formal objects highlights anotherimportant feature of emotional experience which feeling theoriesneglect, and which other psychological theories attempt toaccommodate: emotions involve evaluations. If someone insults me and Ibecome angry, his impertinence will be the aspect of his behavior thatfits the formal object of anger: I only become angry once I construethe person's remark as a slight; the specific nature of my emotion'sformal object is a function of my appraisal of the situation. MagnaArnold (1960) introduced the notion of appraisal into psychology,characterizing it as the process through which the significance of asituation for an individual is determined. Appraisal gives rise toattraction or aversion, and emotion is equated with this "felttendency toward anything intuitively appraised as good (beneficial),or away from anything intuitively appraised as bad (harmful)"(171). Subsequent appraisal theories accept the broad features ofArnold's account, and differ mainly in emphasis. Richard Lazarus(1991) makes the strong claim that appraisals are both necessary andsufficient for emotion, and sees the identity of particular emotionsas being completely determined by the patterns of appraisal givingrise to them. Nico Frijda (1986) takes the patterns of actionreadiness following appraisals to be what characterize differentemotions, but departs from Arnold in not characterizing these patternssolely in terms of attraction and aversion. Klaus Scherer and hisGeneva school have elaborated appraisal theories into sophisticatedmodels that anatomize different emotions in terms of some eighteen ormore dimensions of appraisal. Emotions turn out to be reliablycorrelated, if not identified, with patterns of such complexappraisals. (Scherer et al., 2001). Appraisal theories can bedescribed as taking a functional approach to emotion, insofar asappraisals lead to reactions whose function is to deal with specificsituation types having some significance for an individual (Scherer2006). This approach suggests that the space of emotions can beconceptualized as multidimensional. In practice, however, so-calleddimensional theories simplify the problem of representation byreducing these to just two or three (Russell 2003). Typically theseinclude 'arousal' and 'valence'. This is handy, but tends to flattenout many distinct ways in which one might classify emotional valenceas 'positive' or 'negative'.
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