The definition of instructional technology that I feel best explains the field comes from the text book Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology as it “encompasses the analysis of learning and performance problems, and the design, development, implementation, evaluation and management of instructional and non-instructional processes and resources intended to improve learning…” This definition addresses all areas in my profession of education that support the ultimate goal of helping students succeed in academia (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p. 5).
The Association for Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) explains that "Educational technology is the study and ethical application of theory, research, and best practices to advance knowledge as well as mediate and improve learning and performance through the strategic design, management and implementation of learning and instructional processes and resources"(aect.org).
Instructional Technology is a field of study that involves the purposeful design of instruction to include technological tools and skills which support the learner in achieving academic success.
In order to know more about Instructional Technology, it is important to understand its historical trends and current uses in education. My goal is to remain current and relevant in my practice as an primary educator so that I am best able to support my colleagues and students.
Early educational institutions included museums which housed supplemental media, such as films and photographs, to enrich learning. School houses then began showing silent films in the 1910s with oil lamp projectors, which evolved in the 1920s and 1930s to include radio broadcasting and the beginning of the audiovisual instruction movement. Even with the setbacks of the Great Depression in 1929, the audiovisual movement continued to progress with the introduction of professional organizations for visual instruction such as The Department of Visual Instruction, currently known as the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT). A demand for audiovisual instructional materials increased with the onset of World War II when military services sought training films in order to instruct large groups of personnel.
With the invention of the television in the 1950s, the audiovisual movement was impacted by receiving the support of the Federal Government and the Ford Foundation. Televisions were brought into the classroom to deliver instruction in many subject areas. Funding soon faded as the use of televisions became more of a public interest than simply educational. In the 1960s and 1970s, IBM designed computer-assisted instruction (CAI) which was used in select public schools and universities. However, this technology did not have much influence in education. This led to the introduction of the computer in the 1980s and inclusion into academia. By 1983, more than 40 percent of elementary schools and 75 percent of secondary schools were used for instructional purposes. However, its use was primarily for drill and practice and word processing skills.
In 1990, the revolutionary development of the Internet also known as the World Wide Web connected individuals to the world through computers. Rapid advancements were made in the technologies used in education with more than 93 percent of elementary schools utilizing the internet daily for instructional activities in 2010. Online education began to expand exponentially in colleges world wide, allowing students who may have not previously been able to attend college due to geographic constraints, family or job responsibilities. Instructors and students interact with one another, sharing ideas and collaborating with one another to develop new skills and knowledge.
Source: (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012)
In 1965, Robert Gagne described the five domains of learning outcomes which categorize what the learners can do to demonstrate their understanding. This is helpful for the Instructional Designer to know because this can serve as a guide for determining the assessments that complement the objectives of learning. Additionally, he explained the learning hierarchy which tells how certain skills are necessary in order for higher-level skills to be achieved. This systematic approach is a key element in many design models in instruction. He also defined the Nine Events of Instruction which supports the Instructional Designer to make the learning process more engaging for students.
In 1954, another IT pioneer, B.F. Skinner, understood the requirements for increasing human learning and what materials were needed for effective instruction. He explains how newer concepts need to be presented in small steps with active responses to acquired information and receive immediate feedback so as to reaffirm correct learning. Many eLearning courses can be based on the theories of behaviorism which Skinner contributed to when incorporating assessments where the learner is following a sequence of steps to demonstrate their learning.
The last major contributor to the field is Robert Glaser. In 1962, Glaser coined the term “criterion-referenced measures” as opposed to commonly-known term: norm-referenced. The difference between these two terms is that norm-referenced compared students’ learning to those of other students, whereas criterion-referenced measures compare the students’ learning to the concepts or behaviors that were taught and additionally, what the students knew prior to being taught. Additionally, he expanded upon the theory of constructivist learning.
Instructional technology blends with concepts in psychology to explain how learners gain knowledge and understanding of the world around them. Focusing on three major learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, designers of instruction can learn about the learner, and adapt teaching methods to meet each of their unique needs.
Behaviorism: Developed through the research of J. B. Watson and B.F. Skinner in the 1950s, behaviorism describes the learner as responsive or reactive to the environmental stimuli or conditions and the reinforcement of the consequences of such stimuli. Because behaviorism was around at the beginning of instructional theory, instructional design was initially influenced by its qualities. Although there are many uses for behaviorist concepts in education, it does lack in areas of assessment with mental processes or connections to prior knowledge.
Cognitivism: The next learning theory developed in the 1960s is cognitivism, refined by theorists Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagne, which focuses on the “conceptualization of students’ learning processes and addresses the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind” (Ertmer, 2013, p51). This theory is similar to the idea of a computer: information is received, then processed which leads to certain outcomes, but does not allow the learner to accept multiple perspectives of others through collaboration.
Constructivism: The last theory researched was constructivism, with early contributors such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky that has evolved into varying interpretations with influences in education. Early philosophers felt there was not a place for this concept in education, but over time, it was clarified and applied as “the notion that the learner is an active participant in the learning process who ‘constructs’ a personal meaning from the situation” (Bauersfeld, 1995, as cited in O'Donnell, 1997, p.285). Additionally, constructivism accounts for the learner’s prior knowledge and the experience of others (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). Students build upon their prior knowledge and integrate new ideas in constructing their understanding of topics.
For more information about my philosophy, click the button below:
"Instruction is not so much done to learners as it is meant to engage learners in a process of inquiry and activity. The instructor shifts role from 'sage on the stage' to 'guide on the side'- still sharing information where needed, but primarily engaging learners in authentic and challenging learning activities" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012, p.45).
The whole perspective on education has shifted with the introduction of newer technologies. Learners have a world of information at their fingertips, and educators have to relearn the process of instructional design and methodologies. Tools that were once given to learners by educators are now available to them abundantly and the learner can gain information autonomously. Becoming a coach to today's learners is a perspective that I have taken, along with the constructivist views of learning. The image to the left demonstrates the design of integrating constructivist in the classroom, upon which I have developed my educational philosophy.
Establishing a foundation in learning comes from getting to the core of human learning. In ETEC 500, I was challenged to research various learning theories, and develop and improve my educational and teaching philosophy. Learning about the history of each theory, I know what the major features are of each, and how they came to influence education. With psychology at the root, many of these theories explain how the learner acquires knowledge either behaviorally, cognitively, or constructively. Each theory has certain beneficial aspects that can support the overall idea of learning, and so it was with consideration that I was able to pull the relevant pieces together and explain how each of them works together to benefit both the educator and the learner. As an instructional designer, I know that I have to account for the different learning styles of each of my students, and adapt my teaching methods to meet each of their needs. I also more closely examined the role of technology as it relates to my philosophy, and how I can continue to utilize it as a tool to encourage student learning, maintain organization and ease the home-school connection. Additionally, I found some wonderful resources of information through the process of my research, many of which I plan to return to over again as I develop my skills as an educational technologist. The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology website provided good insight into the direction of our government with relation to technology in the classroom. It’s important to know how educators will be supported (or not) by our government, and which direction we could be going. The Horizon report was also a very important and interesting source that I was made aware of during this module. I plan to continue to use the information I have acquired to keep my skills in technology polished.