Women in Islam

Islamic law emerged into a world where women were typically treated as legal minors, property, or spiritual liabilities, and it introduced unprecedented rights in marriage, inheritance, consent, and religious status by comparison.

Before diving into the Islamic rights and regulations for women, we wanted to briefly overview the women's status around the world without Islam (Before Islam emerged, or in the lands where Islam didn't spread). We discuss the legal, social, and philosophical status of women across major pre-Islamic civilizations, providing verified sources for historically significant statements about female inferiority. The evidence demonstrates that doctrines on female inferiority were institutionalized through law, philosophy, and religion in virtually every major society preceding the Islamic era. Islamic law on women is detailed in the next tabs, but we contrast it here briefly to other laws.

1. Modern European countries

intro intro intro think think think

Denmark
Until 1899, a Danish husband held formal legal guardianship (værgemål) over his wife. This guardianship extended to her person as well as her property: he alone controlled her share of the marital estate and her separate property, and held the power to have her committed to, or held in, an insane asylum.

"Until a wife obtained full economic and personal legal capacity in 1899, the husband was her guardian and could therefore, for example, have her committed to or held in an insane asylum; he alone held control over her share of the marital estate and her separate property."
Dübeck, Inger - Kvinders retlige stilling; translation from Danish to English made using AI

References:
Dübeck, Inger - Kvinders retlige stilling, Dübeck (2024) (https://lex.dk/kvinders_retlige_stilling)

France
The Napoleonic Code (Code civil, 1804) placed a wife under her husband's marital authority (puissance maritale). She required his written authorization to work outside the home, to sign contracts, to appear in court, or to open a bank account in her own name. This regime remained in force, with incremental reform, until 1965 - when French wives were finally permitted to work and manage their own bank accounts without requiring permission and consent from their husbands. French women also did not vote until 1944, and first cast a ballot in 1945.

References:
Code civil des Français (1804), Légifrance
Women in France - legal status timeline

United Kingdom
English common law, inherited throughout the British Empire and the United States, held that marriage suspended a wife's independent legal existence altogether - the doctrine of coverture. William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765) gave the doctrine its classic formulation:

"By marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law: that is, the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage, or at least is incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband: under whose wing, protection, and cover, she performs everything; and is therefore called in our law-french a feme-covert [married woman] (...)"
Blackstone, W., Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765), vol. 1, p. 265

Under coverture, a feme covert could not own property, keep her own wages, or sue or be sued in her own name; these rights belonged to her husband. Reform began only with the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1882.

References:
Blackstone, W., Commentaries on the Laws of England (1765)
Married Women's Property Act 1882 (1882) (read more here: Married Women’s Property Act 1882)

Comparison between all three and Islam:
Under Islamic law, women were recognized as full legal persons who could own, buy, sell, inherit, and go to court on their own, without needing anyone's permission. A husband had no right to touch his wife's property or wealth - it stayed hers alone, even if she was richer than him. She also couldn't be locked away in an asylum or stripped of her rights just because she got married.

What's notable is the timing: these rights existed roughly 1,300 years before similar protections showed up in places like Denmark, France, or England. And unlike those countries, where a woman's rights were often taken away or limited the moment she married, under Islamic law her legal status and property rights stayed the same before and after marriage.

2. Greek Civilization

In classical Athens, a woman's consent to marriage was not necessary (p. 33). A woman had no legal authority to handle transactions in property worth more than a certain minimal amount, nor could she make a will (p. 37). Throughout her life, a woman was legally under the care of a male guardian (kyrios) - her husband or her nearest male relative - who handled nearly all legal transactions for her, including giving her in marriage, providing a dowry, litigating on her behalf in the courts, and handling all but the smallest monetary transactions. 

Perhaps most shocking to modem readers are the rules governing an heiress (epikleros), the daughter of a man who died leaving no sons. The heiress was by law given in marriage to her nearest male relative, along with the property of the deceased (p. 29). If the male relative (who might be as close in consanguinity as an uncle) was already married, he could divorce his wife and marry the heiress (p. 29). The heiress was thus treated as part of the estate and went to the heir. 

Refrences: 

Women and Law in Classical Greece

Epikleros 

LEGAL STANDING OF WOMEN IN ANCIENT ATHENS

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) provided the most influential philosophical justification for female inferiority in his biological works. In Generation of Animals, he explicitly states:

"For that [the menstrual fluid] is also a residue, and it possesses all the parts potentially, but none in actuality. For it possesses potentially those parts by which the female differs from the male. For just as from mutilated [parents] sometimes mutilated [offspring] are born and sometimes not, so also from a female sometimes a female is born and sometimes not, but a male. For the female is, as it were, a mutilated male, and the menstrual discharge is semen, though not pure."

This passage appears in Book II, 737a of Generation of Animals, where Aristotle develops his theory that the male principle provides the "form" and "soul" to reproduction, while the female contributes only "matter".​

Plato (428-348 BCE) presented a more complex but equally damaging view. In Timaeus 42b-c, he describes reincarnation as a system of cosmic justice where:

"Men who lived lives of cowardice or injustice were reborn in the second generation as women".​

This doctrine, made femaleness a punishment for moral failure. The Timaeus passage explains that those who failed to live virtuously would be "born a second time, now as a woman," and if they continued in wickedness, would be transformed into animals. While Plato's Republic suggests women could become guardians, his metaphysical system fundamentally positioned femaleness as a degraded state.​

The Athenian orator Demosthenes (384-322 BCE):

in his speech Against Neaira (59.122), codified the tripartite classification of women that defined their social utility:

"We have courtesans (hetaerae) for pleasure, concubines (pallakae) for the daily service of our bodies, but wives (gynaekes) for the procreation of legitimate children and to be faithful guardians of our households".​ Demosthenes 59, Against Neaera (D.+59) 

This passage, though actually written by Apollodoros of Acharnae and preserved in the Demosthenic corpus, became the definitive statement of classical Greek attitudes toward women's roles. The speech reveals that Athenian law permitted men to maintain multiple sexual relationships simultaneously, with wives valued primarily for legitimate childbearing.

Contrast with early Islamic civilisation:

• Women received independent legal identity: they could own, buy, sell and inherit property in their own right (Qur’an 4:7–12, 4:32). Classical jurisprudence recognises a woman’s separate estate; her husband cannot dispose of it without her permission.​

• Islamic marriage requires the woman’s consent; forced marriages are invalid.

• A Muslim woman could initiate divorce through khul' or judicial annulment, and her mahr (dower) belonged to her, not to her guardian nor any other male relative.

​2. Rome

In ancient Rome, the law treated women as permanent dependents, much like children. Roman jurists openly grouped women with minors, believing that women lacked the legal and rational capacity to act fully on their own. During the Republic, the legal status of women rested on two foundational institutions: patria potestas and tutela mulierum (guardianship of women).”​

• Patria potestas, means absolute male authority. Roman families were ruled by the paterfamilias, the senior male of the household. He had near-absolute legal power over his children and often over his wife. This power included control over property, marriages, and legal decisions, and in early periods even life-and-death authority. Adult sons gained independence only when the father died; women almost never did in practice.

• Tutela mulierum means Permanent guardianship. Women were seen as emotionally unstable, intellectually weaker, and legally unreliable. As a result, the legal system was designed to control, limit, and supervise women rather than recognize them as autonomous individuals.

Even when a woman was technically independent (sui iuris), Roman law usually required her to have a male guardian approve her legal and financial actions. The guardian could be a father, husband, or another male relative. The assumption was that women needed supervision to prevent poor judgment or manipulation.

Refrences:

Patria potestas (Encyclopedia Britannica) 

Pater familias Wikipedia 

Contrast with Islamic civilization:

• Islamic law never placed all women under a single male “potestas”; each woman is legally responsible for herself. Guardianship (wilāya) concerns marriage contract and minor children, not lifelong control of all her property and acts.​ And it is concerned with protection and support, not control.

• Women could act as witnesses in many contracts.

• No blanket institution equivalent to tutela mulierum existed; widows and unmarried women handled their own wealth and litigation through representatives of their choice, not compulsory male guardians.​

3. Christianity

Paul's letters: In 1 Timothy 2:11-14: "I do not permit a woman to teach or to exercise authority over a man; rather, she is to remain quiet. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor".​

Tertullian (c. 155-240 CE) is the first Christian philosopher to mention the trinity. He is one of the most influential Christian Philosophers, in his treatise On the Apparel of Women (Book I, Chapter 1), delivered one of the most vitriolic condemnations of women in Christian literature:

""In pains and in anxieties dost thou bear (children), woman; and toward thine husband thy inclination, and he lords It over thee." And do you not know that you are (each) an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that (forbidden) tree: you are the first deserter of the divine law: you are she who persuaded him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of your desert--that is, death--even the Son of God had to die. ".​ Ref 

Tertullian believes that Eve is the one who tempted Adam to eat from the tree, and helped the devil. Therefore, all women are blamed for this sin and God punished them with child bearing and labor. His work established the "Eve-ontology" that defined women as inherently sinful and dangerous to male spirituality.​

Augustine (354-430 CE) developed a complex and contradictory anthropology. In his writing: On the Trinity and Literal Commentary on Genesis, he argues that "as souls, both man and woman are equally the image of God," but "as bodies, however, only the man is made in the image of God".

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 CE) integrated Aristotelian biology with Christian theology. In his Summa Theologica he states: "As regards the individual nature, woman is defective and misbegotten, for the active force in the male seed tends to the production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex; while the production of woman comes from defect in the active force".​

4. Judaism

The Talmud records severe restrictions on women's religious education. Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus (1st-2nd century CE) states in the Jerusalem Talmud (Sotah 3:4): "The words of the Torah should be burned rather than entrusted to women".​ He adds that "women's wisdom is solely in the spindle," and teaching daughters Torah is equivalent to teaching them "tiflut" (vain and worthless matters). While some sages disagreed, the majority opinion followed Rabbi Eliezer, though distinctions were made between educated and uneducated women.​

The Babylonian Talmud: (Menahot 43a) establishes a daily blessing for men: "Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, who has not made me a woman".​

This blessing, part of a triad thanking God for not making one a gentile or slave, reflects a hierarchy of legal obligations where men have more commandments (mitzvot). Women recite a different blessing: "who has made me according to His will," interpreted by medieval sources as accepting the "punishment of femininity with resignation".​

In Kiddushin 82b, the Mishnah states: "Happy is he whose children are male, and woe to him whose children are female".​​

Feminism is a complex term encompassing a wide range of meanings, thinkers, and philosophies. A comprehensive definition is therefore beyond the scope of this discussion. What we aim to highlight is that Islam agrees with feminism in affirming the rights and dignity of women, while differing on the idea of absolute sameness in all roles and regulations of life.

Some strands of modern feminism emphasize sameness between men and women, arguing that they are interchangeable in roles, capabilities, and societal functions. From this perspective, men and women should be treated identically in every aspect of life, regardless of biological, psychological, or social differences. Many contemporary Western discussions are influenced by this assumption, which can lead to certain Islamic regulations being labeled as oppressive without a full consideration of their underlying principles and context.

Islam, by contrast, offers a more nuanced perspective - one that combines equal worth with recognition of difference. This distinction is key to understanding why Islam approaches gender roles in a way that seeks balance rather than uniformity.

Equality Before God

In Islam, men and women are unequivocally equal in their standing before God. Both are equally accountable for their actions, equally capable of attaining the highest levels of Paradise, and equally rewarded for their righteousness. This is clearly expressed in the Quran:

Surely for Muslim men and women, believing men and women, devout men and women, truthful men and women, patient men and women, humble men and women, charitable men and women, fasting men and women, men and women who guard their chastity, and men and women who remember Allah often - for all of them Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward. (Quran, 33:35)

Islam also rejects the notion that women bear any inherent spiritual blame for the actions of Adam. Ideas such as women being punished through childbirth or menstruation are not part of Islamic teaching. On the contrary, motherhood is honored and elevated in Islam, as will be discussed further.

The Quran consistently demonstrates that women are valued and heard. For example, a woman’s complaint about her husband’s injustice led to the receipt of direct revelation from God, instituting legal protections for her and others in her position. The Quran explains this situation:

Indeed, Allah has heard the argument of the woman who pleaded with you O Prophet concerning her husband and appealed to Allah. Allah has heard your exchange. Surely Allah is All-Hearing, All-Seeing. (Quran, 58:1) 

Furthermore, God gives certain women as moral examples of righteousness and integrity, such as Mary (Maryam) and the wife of Pharaoh. These righteous women are held up as role models for all believers - men and women alike. This demonstrates that in the eyes of God, belief and righteousness, not gender, determine one’s status. Allah says in the Quran: 

And Allah sets forth an example for the believers: the wife of Pharaoh, who prayed, “My Lord! Build me a house in Paradise near You, deliver me from Pharaoh and his evil doing, and save me from the wrongdoing people.” ˹There is also the example of˺Mary, the daughter of ’Imrân, who guarded her chastity, so We breathed into her womb through Our angel Gabriel. She testified to the words of her Lord and His Scriptures, and was one of the sincerely˺devout. (Quran, 66:11-12)

As such, there is no question in Islam about the highly elevated status of women, and that in the eyes of God, the believing righteous men and women are equal. A few more examples of this concept will be disclosed later on.

Recognizing Differences: Equality is not Sameness

While Islam emphasizes equality in value and accountability, it does not pretend that men and women are the same. Men and women are not meant to be the same in the first place, but complementary by intentional and wise creation from Allah.

This distinction is rooted in observable reality:  Men and women are distinct in their bodies, hormonal regulation, psychological makeup, interests, tolerance, empathy, affection, sexual desire, intimacy, and natural inclinations. These differences affect everything from physical strength to emotional resilience and parental roles. Ignoring these realities creates an unnatural and impractical framework which undermines both men and women.

Allah says in the Quran:

And do not crave what Allah has given some of you over others. Men will be rewarded according to their deeds and women equally according to theirs. Rather, ask Allah for His bounties. Surely Allah has perfect knowledge of all things. (Quran, 4:32)

And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves so that you may find comfort in them. And He has placed between you compassion and mercy. Surely in this are signs for people who reflect. (Quran, 30:21)

Rather than framing men and women as competitors, Islam encourages cooperation, mutual respect, and shared responsibility.

Neglect of Women’s Unique Roles

Certain modern cultural trends place a strong emphasis on career achievement as the primary measure of personal value. In this context, roles such as motherhood and homemaking may be undervalued or overlooked.

However, biological realities - such as pregnancy and breastfeeding - play a central role in human continuity and cannot be separated from discussions of women’s lives. Motherhood, in particular, is a role with profound social importance, shaping future generations and contributing to the stability of families and communities.

Undermining Support for Women

Some contemporary perspectives within feminism emphasize complete financial independence and strict equality in financial responsibility between men and women. While financial independence can be empowering, an inflexible expectation of equal contribution in all circumstances may place additional strain on women during periods such as pregnancy, childbirth, and early child-rearing.

This can, in some cases, reduce the level of support available to women when they may need it most. By contrast, Islam places financial responsibility primarily on men, aiming to ensure that women are supported during these critical stages without being overburdened.

Reducing Women’s Worth

Certain cultural narratives may unintentionally frame equality as the ability to mirror traditionally male roles in all areas. This risks overlooking the distinct contributions women make - particularly in roles that are less publicly visible but socially essential.

Encouraging women to succeed should not require diminishing or disregarding these contributions. A more balanced perspective recognizes value in both public and private spheres, without reducing worth to a single standard.

Islam presents a framework that upholds the dignity and worth of women while recognizing the realities of human difference. It affirms spiritual equality, while allowing for complementary roles that aim to support individuals, families, and society as a whole.

Within this framework, women are not expected to conform to a single model of success, but are given the space to thrive as individuals and as integral members of their families and communities.

In the sections that follow, we will explore in more detail the specific rights and regulations Islam establishes for women.

Honoring Women in Islam

Islam affirms the dignity, worth, and integral role of women in society, family, and religion. The Quran and the Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him demonstrated a high value for women in all their different roles. Below we show some verses from the Quran and some statements from the prophet Muhammad peace be upon him concerning women in different positions in life.

1. The Mother

1.1 The Quran highlighting the mothers' hardships in pregnancy and breast feeding:

“And We have commanded people to ˹honour˺ their parents. Their mothers bore them through hardship upon hardship, and their weaning takes two years. So be grateful to Me and your parents. To Me is the final return.”
Surah Luqman (31:14)

1.2. A Mother’s Right to Good Companionship

Hadith:

A man came to the Prophet ﷺ and asked, “O Messenger of Allah, who is the most deserving to be treated with the best companionship by me?”
He replied, “Your mother.”
The man asked: “Then who?” He replied: “Your mother.”
He asked again: “Then who?” He replied: “Your mother.”
He asked again: “Then who?” He replied: “Your father.”
Source: al-Bukhari (No. 5971), Muslim (No. 2548)

1.3. Paradise Lies Beneath Her Feet

Hadith:

It was narrated from Mu'awiyah bin Jahimah As-Sulami, that Jahimah came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said:

"O Messenger of Allah! I want to go out and fight (in Jihad) and I have come to ask your advice." He said: "Do you have a mother?" He said: "Yes." He said: "Then stay with her, for Paradise is beneath her feet."
Source: Sunan an-Nasa'i 3104

1.4. Upholding good treatment even with a Mother that is opposing Islam

Hadith:

Asma' daughter of Abu Bakr reported:

I said: Messenger of Allah, my mother, who is inclined or scared has come to me. Should I (even despite her position of being opposed to Islam) treat her well? He said: Yes.
Source: Sahih Muslim 1003a

1.5. Repeated Command to Honor Mothers

Hadith:

The Prophet ﷺ said:

“Indeed Allah commands you to treat your mothers well. Indeed Allah commands you to treat your mothers well. Indeed Allah commands you to treat your mothers well. Then He commands you to treat the closest of relatives, then those who follow them.”
Source: Musnad Ahmad (No. 16713), graded hasan.

2. The Wife

2.1. The Best of You Is Best to His Wife

Hadith:

A’ishah (may Allah be pleased with her) said: 

The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said: “The best of you is the one who is best to his wives, and I am the best of you to my wives.”

Source: al-Tirmidhi (No. 3895).

2.2. Complete Faith Includes Good Character at Home

Hadith:

“The most complete of the believers in faith is the one with the best character. And the best of you are those who are best to their wives.”
Source: al-Tirmidhi (No. 1162).

2.3. The prophet peace be upon him was always helping his wives at home

Hadith:

Narrated Al-Aswad:

That he asked `Aisha "What did the Prophet (ﷺ) use to do in his house?" She replied, "He used to keep himself busy serving his family and when it was the time for prayer he would go for it.”
Source: Sahih Bukhari (No. 6039)

2.4 Fear Allah Regarding Women

Hadith:

The Prophet ﷺ said:

"Fear Allah concerning women! Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah, and intercourse with them has been made lawful unto you by words of Allah. You too have right over them, and that they should not allow anyone to sit on your bed whom you do not like. But if they do that, you can chastise them but not severely. Their rights upon you are that you should provide them with food and clothing in a fitting manner."
Source: Sahih Muslim 1218a

Explanation: You have taken them by the trust of Allah, means you have married them with his permission and regulations, so you have to give them their rights. Making intercourse lawful by the words of Allah means that you only have the right to be intimate with them because Allah has given you this right after you married them lawfully, and this is not a right you take for granted. Then after that the prophet peace be upon him reminds the husbands to nor be harsh with their wives when they are in conflict with them, and reminds them of their rights for food and clothing.

2.5 Do Not Hate a Believing Woman

Hadith:

“A believing man does not despise a believing woman. If he finds something in her character he dislikes, he will be pleased by something else.”
Source: Sahih Muslim 1469

2.6 Everyone Is a Shepherd (Meaning everyone has an obligation to care for others)

Hadith:

“"Each of you is a shepherd, and each of you is responsible for his flock. A leader is a shepherd over his people and responsible for them. A man is a shepherd over his family and responsible for them. A woman is a shepherd over her husband’s house and children and responsible for them."
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 893; Sahih Muslim 1829a

2.7 Spouses a Sign from Allah, instilling mercy and compassion between them

Allah said in the Qur'an:

“And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves so that you may find comfort in them. And He has placed between you compassion and mercy. Surely in this are signs for people who reflect.”
Surah Ar-Rum (30:21)

2.8 Intimacy and Companionship in Marriage

Qur’an:

“It has been made permissible for you to be intimate with your wives during the nights preceding the fast. Your spouses are a garment for you as you are for them.”
Surah Al-Baqarah (2:187)

Here, Allah used a metaphor about the relationship between spouses, that they are like a garment for each other, as they if they wrap around each other with the perfect fit, signifying closeness, intimacy and comfort. 

2.9. The prophet peace be upon him used to take advice from his wives

Hadith:

“... When the writing of the peace treaty was concluded, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said to his companions, "Get up and' slaughter your sacrifices and get your head shaved." By Allah none of them got up, and the Prophet repeated his order thrice. When none of them got up, he left them and went to Um Salama (his wife) and told her of the people's attitudes towards him. Um Salama said, "O'Prophet (ﷺ) of Allah! Do you want your order to be carried out? Go out and don't say a word to anybody till you have slaughtered your sacrifice and call your barber to shave your head." So, the Prophet (ﷺ) went out and did not talk to anyone of them till he did that, i.e. slaughtered the sacrifice and called his barber who shaved his head. Seeing that, the companions of the Prophet (ﷺ) got up, slaughtered their sacrifices, and started shaving the heads of one another..."
Source: Sahih Bukhari (No. 2731)

Commentary: Ibn Hajar (One of the most respected Islamic Scholars) noted that this shows her intelligence and sound judgment. This hadith shows us how the prophet peace be upon him consulted his wife in a serious matter, even though he was a messenger from God. This serves as an example for us Muslims, since we are no messengers of God or anything, we are ought to respect the wife's advice even more, following the prophet's way.

2.10. How the prophet peace be upon him dealt with his wives during menstruation

In Judaism, during menstruation and for a period after (until immersion in a ritual bath, the mikveh), spouses must avoid all forms of physical contact. This includes not touching, hugging, or sleeping in the same bed. Orthodox rabbinic law extends the prohibition to passing objects directly from hand-to-hand, to prevent even accidental touch. They should not eat from the same plate or share food directly. The husband should not eat his wife's leftovers or drink from her cup if it denotes intimacy or affection.

The Jews in Madinah at the time of the prophet were practicing these prohibitions. The Arab pagans followed the jews in these practices. With this background, the companions of the prophet peace be upon him, wanted to know how to deal with their wives during menstruation. The companions asked the prophet peace be upon him about that, so Allah revealed in the Quran:

“They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ about menstruation. Say, “Beware of its harm! So keep away, and do not have intercourse with your wives during their monthly cycles until they are purified. When they purify themselves, then you may approach them in the manner specified by Allah. Surely Allah loves those who always turn to Him in repentance and those who purify themselves.”
Surah Al-Baqarah (2:222)

After the revelation of this verse, the prophet peace be upon him explained how to deal with your wife during menstruation. The companion of the prophet; Anas ibn Malik narrated that:

“The Jews, when a woman menstruated, would not eat with her, or even stay in the same house.
The Companions asked the Prophet ﷺ about this, and Allah revealed the verse. (Then he mentioned the verse above).

The Prophet ﷺ said:
‘Do everything with them except sexual intercourse.’

When the Jews heard this, they said:
‘This man is not leaving anything we do except that he opposes us!’ (Sahih Muslim 302)

The prophet peace be upon him was keen on breaking the cultural taboo around menstruation. In another hadith Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) narrated:

“I used to drink while I was menstruating, then I would hand the cup to the Prophet ﷺ, and he would place his mouth where mine had been and drink. And I would gnaw on a bone (with some meat on it), then give it to the Prophet ﷺ, and he would place his mouth where mine had been.” 

(Sahih Muslim 300)

This hadith shows us the Prophet’s ﷺ tenderness and deep emotional intimacy with his wife. By intentionally drinking from the exact place where she drank — while she was on her period — he reassured her emotionally and showed her that she is not dirty because of menstruation. 

In addition, the prophet peace be upon him also assured us that a woman in her menstruation is not spiritually unclean. In another hadith Aisha also narrated that:

“We set out with the Prophet (ﷺ) for Hajj and when we reached Sarif (a place on the way) I got my menses. When the Prophet (ﷺ) came to me, I was weeping. He asked, "Why are you weeping?" I said, "I wish if I had not performed Hajj this year." He asked, "May be that you got your menses?" I replied, "Yes." He then said, ‘This is something Allah has decreed for the daughters of Adam. So do everything the pilgrims do, except that you must not circumambulate the Kaʿbah until you are pure.’” (Sahih al-Bukhari 305)

'A'isha reported:

"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) would recline in my lap when I was menstruating, and recite the Qur'an." (Sahih Muslim 301)

This hadith shows how the Prophet ﷺ responded with gentleness and education, helping Aisha overcome her grief and disappointment. He reframed menstruation not as something shameful but as a normal part of womanhood, using compassionate language. And he used to read the Quran in her lap when she is on her period, for the same reasons.

This hadith makes it clear that Islam rejected harsh or exclusionary attitudes toward menstruating women. Unlike some religious or tribal customs that viewed menstruating women as impure and untouchable, the Prophet peace be upon him taught a more balanced view: menstruation is a temporary physical state, not a spiritual flaw, and intimacy — except for intercourse — remains completely allowed.

In addition, as we mentioned earlier, the Jews even wouldn't let their wives touch their food or pass things to them during menstruation. Therefore Aisha also thought she shouldn't touch anything related to the prophet at the time of menstruation. 'A'isha reported:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said to me: Get me the mat from the mosque. I said: I am menstruating. Upon this he remarked: Your menstruation is not in your hand.

There are many hadiths from the prophet peace be upon him regarding this, with all his wives. But I think the ones we mentioned are sufficient to deliver the idea.

3. The Daughter

3.1 Burying daughters alive is heavily condemned

In Pre-Islamic times, the Arabs used to bury their newborn daughters alive out of shame and deny them inheritance, as they were a burden according to them. On the contrary, the prophet peace be upon him elevated the status of daughters even above sons in some instances. 

The Quran heavily condemned the practice of burying one's new born daughter alive. 

Allah said in the Qur'an:

“Whenever one of them is given the good news of a baby girl, his face grows gloomy, as he suppresses his rage. He hides himself from the people because of the bad news he has received. Should he keep her in disgrace, or bury her ˹alive˺ in the ground? Evil indeed is their judgment! ”
Surah An-Nahl (16:58,59)

3.2 Daughters as a Shield from Hellfire

Hadith:

Uqbah bin Amir said, I heard the Messenger of Allah peace be upon him say:

"Whoever has three daughters and is patient towards them, and feeds them, gives them to drink, and clothes them from his wealth; they will be a shield for him from the Fire on the Day of Resurrection.'"”
Source: Sunan Ibn Majah 3669

Explanation: Any Muslim who raises three daughters well will be protected from hell fire because of taking care of his daughters. This highlights the special virtue attached to raising daughters with care and compassion. Here, daughters were given more regard than sons to honor and dignify them, as opposed to pre-Islamic culture, and many other historical cultures of being ashamed of daughters.

3.3 The Prophet’s Joy at the Birth of Daughters

The Prophet ﷺ showed love for his daughter Fatimah and honored her with titles like “al-Zahra” and “Umm Abiha.” (which means the mother of her father, because of her kindness and caring qualities). This defied the pre-Islamic shame surrounding daughters.

Islamic teachings provide a structured and principled framework for the rights and responsibilities of women, as outlined in the Qur’an and authentic hadith. These rights are clearly defined within Islamic law. The following is a general overview of women’s rights in Islam, supported by evidence from the Qur’an and hadith.

The prophet peace be upon him clearly highlighted women rights:

Hadith:

It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah(ﷺ) said:

"O Allah, bear witness that I have issued a warning concerning (failure to fulfill) the rights of the two vulnerable ones: Orphans and women.'"

Source: Sunan Ibn Majah 3678

1. Equality of values before Allah:

Islam establishes fundamental equality between men and women. 

Allah says in the the Quran:

"So their Lord responded to them: “I will never deny any of you—male or female—the reward of your deeds. Both are equal in reward. Those who migrated or were expelled from their homes, and were persecuted for My sake and fought and ˹some˺ were martyred—I will certainly forgive their sins and admit them into Gardens under which rivers flow, as a reward from Allah. And with Allah is the finest reward!"

Al-Imran (3:195)

This principle is reinforced in another verse:

"Surely ˹for˺ Muslim men and women, believing men and women, devout men and women, truthful men and women, patient men and women, humble men and women, charitable men and women, fasting men and women, men and women who guard their chastity, and men and women who remember Allah often—for ˹all of˺ them Allah has prepared forgiveness and a great reward."
(Qur'an, 33:35)

This establishes that women and men have the same standing before Allah and equal opportunities for entering paradise and getting his rewards.

The Quran emphasizes that rewards are based on righteousness and belief in Allah and his message (Islam), not gender:

"Whoever does good, whether male or female, and is a believer, We will surely bless them with a good life, and We will certainly reward them according to the best of their deeds."
(Qur'an, 16:97)

The Quran establishes that men and women were created from a single soul, emphasizing their fundamental equality. Surah An-Nisa (4:1) states:

"O humanity! Be mindful of your Lord Who created you from a single soul, and from it He created its mate, and through both He spread countless men and women. And be mindful of Allah—in Whose Name you appeal to one another—and ˹honour˺ family ties. Surely Allah is ever Watchful over you."
(Qur'an, 4:1) 

Furthermore, the prophet peace be upon him told us that women are the equal counterpart of men:

Hadith (1):

Narrated Aisha

The prophet was talking about a ruling, and he was asked is it the same for women?

“...He replied: Yes. Women are counterpart of men”

Source: Sunan Abi Dawud 236

2. Financial and Economic Rights:

The rule in Islam is that Women have complete financial independence and are not required to share their earnings with their families or husbands. Women have full rights to engage in business and commercial activities. Khadijah, the Prophet's first wife, was one of Arabia's most successful merchants and actually employed the Prophet peace be upon him before their marriage. The woman has the full legal right to earn money through lawful means and to practice trade in all allowable businesses.

Allah says in the Quran:

"O believers! It is not permissible for you to inherit women against their will or mistreat them to make them return some of the dowry ˹as a ransom for divorce˺—unless they are found guilty of adultery. Treat them fairly. If you happen to dislike them, you may hate something which Allah turns into a great blessing."

Al-Nisaa (4:19)

Explanation: This verse gives guidelines for men to keep away from women's property and money. It firstly orders them to not try to inherit women by compulsion. For example, a man would prevent a female relative (such as his sister or mother) from getting married so he can secure her estate for himself. Furthermore, if a man wants to divorce his wife, the rule is that she keeps her dowry (Marital gift). Therefore, some men would treat women badly before divorce, so that they take the dowry back in exchange for divorce, and this verse forbids this act.

The scholar Al-Maududi comments on this verse:

This means that the relatives of the husband should not treat the widow of the deceased as if she were a part of the inheritance and begin imposing their will on her. Upon the death of her husband a woman becomes independent. As soon as her legally-prescribed period of waiting ends, she is free to go to wherever she likes and to marry anyone she wishes.

That is why both men and women are ordered to do charity in Islam, and you can't pay charity if you don't own anything.

Hadith (1):

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said to women: 

“Give in charity, even if it is from your jewelry.”

Source: Sahih al-Bukhari (1466)"

Hadith (2):

In another hadith a woman comes to the prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) her asking if she can spend her charity on her husband ank kids and he said yes.

Zaynab ther wife of Ibn Masoud said:

"O'Prophet of Allah! Today you ordered people to give charity and I had an ornament and intended to give it as charity, but Ibn Mas`ud (her husband) said that he and his children deserved it more than anybody else." The Prophet (peace be upon him) replied, "Ibn Mas`ud had spoken the truth. Your husband and your children had more right to it than anybody else."
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari (1462)

Explanation: She was going to give her charity to strangers as she couldn't imagine giving money to her husband and children is considered charity. This shows how her money belonged only to her and not to the family.

The scholar Rasheed Ridha said in Tafseer Al-Manaar (Commentary on the Quran): 

"Islam aborted the practices of the Arabs and non-Arabs regarding depriving the woman from the right of ownership and limiting her ability in acting regarding what she owns. Islam also removed the authority of the husband over his wife’s money and possessions. Under Islam, the woman has the right to own and act regarding her possessions legally. She is also entitled to receive a dowry and to be financially supported by her husband even if she is wealthy. All of this is included in the Quranic rule: {And due to the wives is similar to what is expected of them, according to what is reasonable.}" [Quran 2:228]

3. Inheritance rights:

This is connected to the financial rights of a woman. In many civilizations in the past (including pre-Islamic Arabia), women didn't have a right to inheritance from any deceased relative. In fact, women sometimes were part of the inheritance themselves (inherited as a property). Islam declared that women have obligate shares of the inheritance of dead relatives, which include the husband, parents, siblings and children.

Allah says in the Quran:

“For men there is a share in what their parents and close relatives leave, and for women there is a share in what their parents and close relatives leave—whether it is little or much. ˹These are˺ obligatory shares.”
Surah Al-Nisaa (4:7)

4. The right for Education:

Education itself is more than just a right in Islam, education is greatly encouraged, and in some cases mandatory and obligated for both men and women. This education and knowledge is understood in Islamic jurisprudence as being of two dimensions that are obligated upon both genders:

• Farḍ 'ayn being the knowledge that is obligated upon the individual.

• Farḍ kifāyah being the knowledge that is communally obligated.

Examples of the right and obligation in seeking knowledge

Beneath are examples of encouragement and obligation in seeking knowledge and education that applies to both genders.

• Seeking education and knowledge in matters of the religion range from individually obligated to communally obligated depending on the circumstances and situation. For an example a person is obligated to establish the prayer, know how to make wudhu, etc.

• Education and knowledge on other matters such as science, medicine, etc. range from being encouraged to being obligatory communally (for an example if sickness is prevalent, then a doctor may become a communal obligation upon that community of Muslims) depending on the circumstances and situations.

• Likewise it is very much encouraged for both genders to increase in seeking this knowledge beyond what is just obligated.

• It is also very much encouraged for both genders to seek education and knowledge and these matters which benefit people such as medicine, science, etc.

In general, if the Muslims don't have sufficient people to carry out necessary jobs such as medicine or engineering, then education becomes obligatory Islamically to cover that need; and this is applied to both genders. Muslims especially need female doctors, teachers and other professions to cover the needs for Muslim women, since men are not supposed to deal with women in their private places except out of necessity.

Allah says in the Quran:

“... Allah will elevate those of you who are faithful, and ˹raise˺ those gifted with knowledge in rank. And Allah is All-Aware of what you do.”
Surah Al-Mujadila (58:11)

“Have you [Prophet] not considered how God sends water down from the sky and that We produce with it fruits of varied colours; that there are in the mountains layers of white and red of various hues, and jet black; that there are various colours among human beings, wild animals, and livestock too? It is those of His servants who have knowledge who stand in true awe of God. God is almighty, most forgiving.”
Surah Fatir (35:28)

Hadith (1):

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: 

“Whoever sets out on a path seeking knowledge, Allah will make a path to Paradise easy for them because of it. The angels lower their wings in approval of the seeker of knowledge, and everything in the heavens and on the earth seeks forgiveness for the scholar - even the fish in the depths of the water. The superiority of the scholar over the devout worshipper is like the superiority of the full moon on a clear night over all the other stars. The scholars are the heirs of the Prophets. The Prophets did not leave behind dinars or dirhams; rather, they left behind knowledge. So whoever takes hold of it has indeed taken an abundant share.”

Source: Sunan Abi Dawud 3641

Hadith (2):

This one is specifically about women and education:

"Narrated Abu Sa'id Al-Khudri:

Some women requested the Prophet (peace be upon him) to fix a day for them as the men were taking all his time. On that he promised them one day for religious lessons and commandments. Once during such a lesson the Prophet said, "A woman whose three children die will be shielded by them from the Hell fire." On that a woman asked, "If only two die?" He replied, "Even two (will shield her from the Hell-fire).."
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 101

Hadith (3):

“Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim.”
Source: Sunan Ibn Majah 224

Explanation: Everyone in the Muslim community was required to learn from the prophet peace be upon him, and everyone had access to him, to ask him questions, consult him, and hear his statements. Nonetheless, the men were always accompanying the Prophet (ﷺ), and the women were shy to talk with him in the presence of men. Therefore, they requested a day only for women, with no men there, and the Prophet (ﷺ) granted them that. If it was true that Islam doesn't want women to be educated, the Prophet (ﷺ) would have told them that they don't need to learn and can just stick to simple matters in life, but it was quite the opposite, he was keen on them consulting and learning.

The special lesson that the woman here is talking about means that if a woman loses her children and she is patient and grateful to Allah, he will reward this patience by saving her from hellfire and admit her to paradise.

We even will go a further step and show that women in Islam would teach men, not just get education.

5. The right to teach

Women at the time of the prophet peace be upon him were teaching and narrating the hadith of the prophet peace be upon him. The best example for that was Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her), the Prophet's wife. 

She - may Allah be pleased with her - was among the greatest jurists of the Companions, the foremost authority in hadith and Sunnah, and one of the earliest and greatest female scholars in Islam. The jurists among the Companions of the Messenger of Allah peace be upon him would refer back to her when faced with difficult matters and would find answers with her. Many of the Companions and their successors studied under her and narrated from her. Aisha narrated 2210 Hadiths from the prophet peace be upon him.

Moreover, she was practicing medicine, was trying herbal recipes for different diseases, and people went to her seeking treatment when they were ill. Furthermore, she was also known to recite poetry elegantly about any subject.

Believers are ordered in the Quran to take the wives of the prophet as an example of the best conduct. So, if this was how his wife were, then how would anyone argue that Muslim women should be less educated or abandon the pursuit of knowledge?

Now let's see what the companions of the prophet and the second generation after them said about Aisha:

Abu Musa al-Ashari said:

“Whenever we, the Companions of the Messenger of Allah, found a hadith difficult to understand and asked Aisha about it, we always found that she had knowledge of it.”

Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, one of the biggest scholars in Islam, he lived after the prophet peace be upon him (second generation of Muslims) said:

“I have never seen anyone more knowledgeable of the meanings of the Quran, Islamic law,  the rulings of the permissible and prohibited, poetry, Arab history, or genealogy, than Aisha”

“when Urwah was told: "How poetic you are!" He replied: "What is my poetry compared to the poetry of Aishah? There was never any event that occurred except that she would recite poetry about it.”

Hisham ibn Urwah narrated from his father: 

“I never saw anyone more knowledgeable in jurisprudence, medicine, or poetry than Aishah”

Masruq ibn al-Ajda said:

“By the One in whose hand is my soul (it means I swear by God), I saw the senior Companions of Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) asking her about the laws of inheritance.”

Imam al-Zuhri said:

“If the knowledge of Aisha were combined with the knowledge of all the wives of the Prophet and all women, Aisha’s knowledge would surpass them all.”

Ata ibn Abi Rabah said:

“Aishah was the most knowledgeable of people, the most learned, and the wisest in matters concerning the public.”

Abu Burdah ibn Abi Musa narrated from his father: 

“No matter was ever unclear to us, and we asked Aishah about it, except that we found knowledge of it with her.”

The widely known scholar of hadith Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said in his book:

“The Mother of the Believers, Lady Aishah (may Allah be pleased with her), was among the most knowledgeable, most learned, and wisest of people.”

She was generous and extremely charitable. Urwah ibn al-Zubayr said:

“Muawiyah (The fifth ruler of all Muslims at that time) once sent Aisha one hundred thousand, and by Allah, the sun had not set before she had distributed it all. Her servant said to her, ‘If only you had bought us some meat for a single dirham.’ She replied, ‘Why didn’t you remind me?’”

Her virtues are very numerous. May Allah be pleased with her. This is what we encourage all Muslim women to be like. Is there any doubt after this about the value of women in Islam, and their role in the society?

6. The right for Social and political participation:

One of the forms of equal rights which are granted to both men and women is the right of exchanging opinions and consultation in general and private matters and in religious and irreligious issues.
Allah says in the Quran:

“The believers, both men and women, are guardians of one another. They encourage good and forbid evil, establish prayer and pay alms-tax, and obey Allah and His Messenger. It is they who will be shown Allah’s mercy. Surely Allah is Almighty, All-Wise.”
Surah At-Tawbah (9:71)

The verse did not differentiate between men and women in commending the good and forbidding the bad. Women's involvement in political and social life under the rule of Islam, is not just a right, it is an obligation upon them.

Consulting women was the practice of the Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him and one of these examples we mentioned above. Here we remind you of the hadith:

“... When the writing of the peace treaty was concluded, Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) said to his companions, "Get up and' slaughter your sacrifices and get your head shaved." By Allah none of them got up, and the Prophet repeated his order thrice. When none of them got up, he left them and went to Um Salama (his wife) and told her of the people's attitudes towards him. Um Salama said, "O'Prophet (ﷺ) of Allah! Do you want your order to be carried out? Go out and don't say a word to anybody till you have slaughtered your sacrifice and call your barber to shave your head." So, the Prophet (peace be upon him) went out and did not talk to anyone of them till he did that, i.e. slaughtered the sacrifice and called his barber who shaved his head. Seeing that, the companions of the Prophet (peace be upon him) got up, slaughtered their sacrifices, and started shaving the heads of one another..."
Source: Sahih Bukhari (No. 2731)

7. The right to vote:

Voting is a type of political and social participation. This is one of the rights that women didn't have in any civilization other than the Islamic civilization, including the western civilization (Women in the west got the right to vote in the last century). Choosing the leader in the Prophet's time was not through voting, but another form similar to that, which is by pledging allegiance to one of the known community members. Pledging allegiance means you approve of this person as the leader and you give him your word that you will follow him as long as he is not ordering anything Islam forbids. The practice was established by the prophet and was mentioned in the Quran.

After the prophet peace be upon him returned to Makkah with an army, the pagans in Makkah completely surrendered, and he pardoned everyone (Check the life story of the prophet on our website). Then, he took the pledge of allegiance from men, and after that he took the pledge of allegiance from women.

Allah says in the Quran:

“O Prophet! When the believing women come to you, pledging to you that they will neither associate anything with Allah ˹in worship˺, nor steal, nor fornicate, nor kill their children, nor falsely attribute ˹illegitimate˺ children to their husbands,1 nor disobey you in what is right, then accept their pledge, and ask Allah to forgive them. Surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.”
Surah Al-Mumtahanah (60:12)

Hadith (1):

Narrated `Aisha:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to take the Pledge of allegiance from the women by words only after reciting this Holy Verse:--(60.12). And the hand of Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) did not touch any woman's hand except the hand of that woman his right hand possessed. 

Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 7214

Explanation: He took the pledge of allegiance from women without shaking their hands or touching them, as it is not allowed in Islam for a man to touch a woman other than his first degree relatives and wife, and the same goes for women. When this kind of understanding of equity between men and women in terms of their duties and rights was well absorbed by the Muslim scholars, they understood the Prophet’s tradition in which he said: “Women are the sisters of men” (Tirmidhi).

The right to work

Women can work, run businesses, and participate in community affairs, as long as Islamic ethics are observed. Some women at the community of the prophet peace be upon him, and we mention some examples: 

Khadijah (may Allah be pleased with her), the Prophet’s wife, was a successful businesswoman. Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Caliph (the leader of all the Muslims as the second successor after the prophet peace be upon him died) appointed a woman, Al-Shifa’ bint Abdullah, as a market inspector in Madinah - entrusting her with oversight and regulation.

Women among the Companions of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) worked. Asmaa, wife of al-Zubayr (may Allah be pleased with them), worked with her husband taking care of the animals and harvesting the land, as reported in hadith (Sahih al-Bukhari 5224 and Sahih Muslim 2182).

As for the wife’s work, the basic principle is that the husband has guardianship over his wife provided that he can afford her provision and needs. Therefore, according to Malik and al-Shafi`i, if he cannot afford this, his guardianship is not complete and hence she can ask for a divorce. On the other hand, Abu Hanifah views that such a provision remains as a debt on the husband.
Thus, one can prevent his wife from working if he can provide her needs.

Within the family structure, the husband is given a role of responsibility and leadership, which is accompanied by obligations of care, provision, and fairness.

Almighty Allah commands that the two spouses should consult one another with regard to weaning their child, How much more, then, should be the case with regard to her own affairs?

In short, if he commands her to do something that does not contradict the Shari`ah, she has to obey him, but he is not permitted to command her to do something that leads to evil or to losing some benefit. But if her work will lead to mingling with men or to other evil consequences, he has the right to command her to leave it and she has to obey him. This is the answer according to the position of Malik and the majority of scholars.

6. Legal rights

Islam granted women legal personhood over 1400 years ago. Women have the right to represent themselves in legal proceedings, and they can represent themselves in court, to testify before a judge, and to pledge their allegiance on their own behalf.

Taken together, these principles demonstrate that Islam established a comprehensive framework of rights for women - spiritual, legal, economic, and social - within a system centered on responsibility, justice, and mutual respect.

In Islam, a man and a woman are not allowed to have intimacy without marriage. Moreover, there are boundaries when a man deals with a woman other than his wife and first degree relatives. They are not allowed to touch at all, not even shake hands, or be together alone in a private place.

Marriage and divorce are very easy in Islam, and can be done in 10 minutes. Nonetheless, marriage gives both women, men and their children their proper rights, and preserves the family structure. Here, we clarify these rights.

This is to prevent casual sex, which destroys families, lead to children without known fathers, cheating and eventually destroying the society.

Allah says in the Quran: 

“˹O Prophet!˺ Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. That is purer for them. Surely Allah is All-Aware of what they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their chastity, and not to reveal their adornments except what normally appears. Let them draw their veils over their chests, and not reveal their ˹hidden˺ adornments except to their husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, those ˹bondwomen˺ in their possession, male attendants with no desire, or children who are still unaware of women’s nakedness. Let them not stomp their feet, drawing attention to their hidden adornments. Turn to Allah in repentance all together, O  believers, so that you may be successful. ”
Al-Nur (24:31)

Footnote: what normally appears means i.e., the face, hands, outer clothes, rings, kohl, and henna.

We will give the rights of marriage in the order they occur in, starting with the first thing: Consent for marriage.

1- The right for consent:

Marriage is not valid in Islam without both the man and the woman giving their approval. Normally, the man is the one who asks the woman or her father for marriage, nonetheless, the woman can also ask the man to marry her either by direct contact or by sending someone to ask him for her, that is totally fine in Islam. In fact, this is what Khadija (may Allah be pleased with her) did with the prophet peace be upon him, she sent someone to offer him to marry her. 

If a man asks a woman's father to marry her, the father must then ask for his daughter's approval, all the marriage will be null. 

Several hadiths demonstrate this principle:

Hadith (1):
Ibn Buraidah narrated that:

"His father said: “A girl came to the Prophet and said: 'My father married me to his brother's son so that he might raise his status thereby.' The Prophet gave her the choice, and she said: 'I approve of what my father did, but I wanted women to know that their fathers have no right to do that.' "
Source: Sunan Ibn Majah 1874

Hadith (2):

A woman called Khansa bint Khidam Al-Ansariya narrated: 

"That her father gave her in marriage when she was a matron and she disliked that marriage. So she went to Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) and he declared that marriage invalid."
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 5138

Hadith (3):
Sufyan narrated that the prophet peace be upon him said:

"A woman who has been previously married (Thayyib) has more right to her person than her guardian; and a virgin's father must ask her consent from her, her consent being her silence, At times he said: Her silence is her affirmation."
Source: Sahih Muslim 1421c 

The same Hadith was also narrated from another companion:
Ibn 'Abbas narrated that the prophet peace be upon him said:

"A woman without a husband has more right to her person than her guardian, and a virgin's consent must be asked from her, and her silence implies her consent."
Source: Sahih Muslim 1421a

Hadith (4):

Aisha asked the prophet peace be upon him on this matter as well:

"I asked Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) about a virgin whose marriage is solemnized by her guardian, whether it was necessary or not to consult her. Allah's Messerger (peace be upon him) said: Yes, she must be consulted. 'A'isha reported: I told him that she feels shy, whereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: Her silence implies her consent."
Source: Sahih Muslim 1420

2- The right to stipulate conditions

After giving the consent for marriage, women have the right to stipulate conditions in their marriage contracts that protect their interests. If the husband breaks these conditions, she has the right to get divorce and keep her dowry, but she can also choose to continue the marriage if she wants that.

Examples of valid conditions include:

• That the husband doesn't marry a second wife

• That she continues education or career

• That she lives close to her family

• Specification of dowry amount and payment terms

Hadith (1):
Uqba bin Amir narrated that:

Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) said, "From among all the conditions which you have to fulfill, the conditions which make it legal for you to have sexual relations (i.e. the marriage contract) have the greatest right to be fulfilled.""
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 2721 and Sahih Muslim 1418

Explanation: The conditions stipulated before marriage have the highest priority to be fulfilled.

Hadith (2):

Kathir bin 'Amr bin 'Awf Al-Muzani narrated from his father, from his grandfather, that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said:

"“Reconciliation is permissible among Muslims, except for a reconciliation that makes lawful what Allah has made unlawful, or makes unlawful what Allah has made lawful. And Muslims are bound by their conditions, except for a condition that makes lawful what Allah has made unlawful, or makes unlawful what Allah has made lawful."
Source: Jami` at-Tirmidhi 1352

3- Right to Dowry (Marital gift)

The Dowry is a marital gift given by the husband to the wife before marriage, and it is called "Mahr". The bride has complete freedom to determine the amount and type of dowry, which can include money, jewelry, property, objects, or even education fees. No one can forgive or waive the dowry except the wife herself, and the man has to fulfill this gift before the marriage. The dowry is paid directly to the bride and becomes her exclusive property. The dowry establishes the bride's financial independence from her parents and in many cases from her husband, who has no legal claims to his wife's dowry.

Allah says in the Quran:

“Give women ˹you wed˺ their due dowries graciously. But if they waive some of it willingly, then you may enjoy it freely with a clear conscience.”
Al-Nisaa (4:4)

“O believers! It is not permissible for you to inherit women against their will or mistreat them to make them return some of the dowry ˹as a ransom for divorce˺—unless they are found guilty of adultery. Treat them fairly. If you happen to dislike them, you may hate something which Allah turns into a great blessing. If you desire to replace a wife with another and you have given the former ˹even˺ a stack of gold ˹as a dowry˺, do not take any of it back. Would you ˹still˺ take it unjustly and very sinfully? And how could you take it back after having enjoyed each other intimately and she has taken from you a firm commitment?"

Al-Nisaa (4:19-21)

“O believers! It is not permissible for you to inherit women against their will or mistreat them to make them return some of the dowry ˹as a ransom for divorce˺—unless they are found guilty of adultery. Treat them fairly. If you happen to dislike them, you may hate something which Allah turns into a great blessing. If you desire to replace a wife with another and you have given the former ˹even˺ a stack of gold ˹as a dowry˺, do not take any of it back. Would you ˹still˺ take it unjustly and very sinfully? And how could you take it back after having enjoyed each other intimately and she has taken from you a firm commitment?"

Al-Nisaa (4:19-21)

Firm commitment is the commitment of marriage and the promise to live with her in kindness or divorce her with dignity.

4- Right to Financial support from the husband (nafaqah)

Men are obligated to support their wives financially, In Islam. The man is required to bring food, clothes, and a proper place for living for his wife. Furthermore, he is required to cover all her financial needs, even if she is extremely rich, and he is not allowed to take any of her money. On the contrary, the wife has no obligation at all to spend a nickel on the household. She is not required to share the costs of living, or the costs related to kids, or even buying her own clothes. If she participates with her money, that is charity for her, as we saw in the hadith earlier.

Allah says in the Quran:

“Men are the caretakers of women, as men have been provisioned by Allah over women and tasked with supporting them financially. And righteous women are devoutly obedient and, when alone, protective of what Allah has entrusted them with...”
Al-Nisaa (4:34)

Al-Maududi comments on this verse:

The verb (provisioned), is "fadal" in Arabic - a derivative of the root f-d-l - is not used to mean that men have been invested with superior honour and dignity. Rather it means that God has endowed one of the sexes (i.e. the male and female sex) with certain qualities which He has not endowed the other sex with, at least not to an equal extent, (such as physical strength). Thus it is the male who is qualified to function as head of the family. The female has been so constituted that she should live under his care and protection.

Hadith (1):

Kathir bin 'Amr bin 'Awf Al-Muzani narrated from his father, from his grandfather, that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said:

"Feed her when you eat, clothe her when you clothe yourself or when you earn, do not strike her on the face, do not insult her, and do not abandon her except within the house."
Source: Sunan Abi Dawud 2142

Explanation: Abandon her within the house means that at the time of major conflict between the spouses, you have the right to not sleep with her in the same bed, but you can't totally leave the house in order to abandon her.

Islam even allows the woman, whose husband does not provide for her, to take from his money what suffices her without his knowledge, according to what is acceptable. 

Hadith (2):

Hind, may Allah be pleased with her, said:

“O Messenger of Allah, Abu Sufyaan is a stingy man and does not give me and my children adequate provisions for maintenance unless I take something from his possession without his knowledge.” The Prophet, (peace be upon him), said to her: "Take from his possessions enough to suffice you and your children reasonably.”
Source: Sahih Muslim 1714a

“Men are the caretakers of women, as men have been provisioned by Allah over women and tasked with supporting them financially. And righteous women are devoutly obedient and, when alone, protective of what Allah has entrusted them with.1 And if you sense ill-conduct from your women, advise them ˹first˺, ˹if they persist,˺ do not share their beds, ˹but if they still persist,˺ then discipline them ˹gently˺.2 But if they change their ways, do not be unjust to them. Surely Allah is Most High, All-Great.If you anticipate a split between them, appoint a mediator from his family and another from hers. If they desire reconciliation, Allah will restore harmony between them. Surely Allah is All-Knowing, All-Aware.”
Al-Nisaa (4:34,35)

5- Right to Initiate Divorce (khula'):

Women in Islam have the right to initiate divorce through a process called khula'. The process is established from the Quran and hadith, and well founded in Islamic scholarship. The khula' is done if the wife doesn't see that she can commit to the marriage anymore according to what Allah has ordered for any reason (For example, she doesn't feel any attraction to the husband and can't give him intimacy, or she doesn't feel fulfilled). If the wife initiates divorce, then she returns the dowry to the man.

Allah says in the Quran:

“Divorce may be retracted twice, then the husband must retain ˹his wife˺ with honour or separate ˹from her˺ with grace.1 It is not lawful for husbands to take back anything of the dowry given to their wives, unless the couple fears not being able to keep within the limits of Allah.2 So if you fear they will not be able to keep within the limits of Allah, there is no blame if the wife compensates the husband to obtain divorce.3 These are the limits set by Allah, so do not transgress them. And whoever transgresses the limits of Allah, they are the ˹true˺ wrongdoers.”
Al-Baqarah (2:229)

Footnotes from Dr. Mustafa Khattab:

Footnote1: A husband may separate from his wife after each of the first two counts of divorce or at the end of her waiting period (see 65:1-5) with dignity. If he chooses to stay with her after the first two counts of divorce then divorces her a third time, the marriage is terminated at the end of her third waiting period. The wife will have to marry and divorce another man before she can be remarried to her ex-husband (see 2:230). However, a woman marrying someone with the intention of getting divorced, in order to return to her first husband, is forbidden.

Footnote2:The “limits of Allah” implies fidelity to one’s spouse according to Allah’s commands.

Footnote3: If the wife does not want to continue in the marriage for legitimate reasons, then she can return the dowry (mahr) to the husband in compensation for divorce. This ruling is called khul’.

Hadith (1):

Narrated Ibn `Abbas: 

"The wife of Thabit bin Qais came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said, "O Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him)! I do not blame Thabit for defects in his character or his religion, but I, being a Muslim, dislike to behave in un-Islamic manner (if I remain with him)." On that Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him) said (to her), "Will you give back the garden which your husband has given you (as Mahr)?" She said, "Yes." Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said to Thabit, "O Thabit! Accept your garden, and divorce her once." "
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari 5273 and Al-Nasa'i 3463

A major scholar in Islam who is called Ibn Qudāmah said:

In summary, if a woman comes to dislike her husband because of his physical appearance, his character, his religion, his old age, his weakness, or the like, and she fears that she will not be able to fulfill the right of Allah Most High in obeying him, then it is permissible for her to seek khulʿ from him in exchange for compensation by which she ransoms herself from him. And then he mentioned the hadith from before.

6- Financial Rights During and After Divorce:

If the man decides to divorce his wife, there are several rights that he needs to fulfill first. The reader is advised to read surah Al-Baqarah 2:228 to 2:237 to get a good understanding of the main rules of divorce (keep in mind that there are more nuances that scholars drive from the rest of the Quran and hadith).

If the man divorces his wife, she can marry another man after waiting three monthly cycles. This has many wisdoms behind it, one is to allow some time for reconciliation, and for the couple to make sure they no longer want to continue the marriage. Moreover, to allow some time for emotional healing and removing the attachment from the ex husband before re-marrying. In addition, to make sure there is no pregnancy from this man. 

During the waiting period, the husband can't tell her to leave the home, and he has to support her financially exactly like it was during the marriage. If the woman turns out to be pregnant, the husband must let her stay in his house until she delivers, while providing for her all the care she needs. After delivering the baby, the ex husband must provide financial support and clothing to the mother in an acceptable amount for the whole nursing period.

After the waiting period, the woman has the right to marry anyone she approves of, without any problem, and she keeps her full dowry from the ex-husband.

Let's look at some verses that outline rights of a divorced woman:

Allah says in the Quran:

“Divorced women must wait three monthly cycles ˹before they can re-marry˺. It is not lawful for them to conceal what Allah has created in their wombs, if they ˹truly˺ believe in Allah and the Last Day. And their husbands reserve the right to take them back within that period if they desire reconciliation. Women have rights similar to those of men equitably, although men have a degree ˹of responsibility˺ above them. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise.”
Al-Baqarah (2:228)

“O Prophet! ˹Instruct the believers:˺ When you ˹intend to˺ divorce women, then divorce them with concern for their waiting period, and count it accurately. And fear Allah, your Lord. Do not force them out of their homes, nor should they leave—unless they commit a blatant misconduct. These are the limits set by Allah. And whoever transgresses Allah’s limits has truly wronged his own soul. You never know, perhaps Allah will bring about a change ˹of heart˺ later.”
Al-Talaq(65:1)

“Let them live where you live ˹during their waiting period˺, according to your means. And do not harass them to make their stay unbearable. If they are pregnant, then maintain them until they deliver. And if they nurse your child, compensate them, and consult together courteously. But if you fail to reach an agreement, then another woman will nurse ˹the child˺ for the father.”
Al-Talaq (65:6)

“When you divorce women and they have ˹almost˺ reached the end of their waiting period, either retain them honourably or let them go honourably. But do not retain them ˹only˺ to harm them ˹or˺ to take advantage ˹of them˺. Whoever does that surely wrongs his own soul. Do not take Allah’s revelations lightly. Remember Allah’s favours upon you as well as the Book and wisdom He has sent down for your guidance. Be mindful of Allah, and know that Allah has ˹perfect˺ knowledge of all things.”
Al-Baqarah (2:231)

“˹Divorced˺ mothers will breastfeed their offspring for two whole years, for those who wish to complete the nursing ˹of their child˺. The child’s father will provide reasonable maintenance and clothing for the mother ˹during that period˺. No one will be charged with more than they can bear. No mother or father should be made to suffer for their child. The ˹father’s˺ heirs are under the same obligation. But if both sides decide—after mutual consultation and consent—to wean a child, then there is no blame on them. If you decide to have your children nursed by a wet-nurse, it is permissible as long as you pay fairly. Be mindful of Allah, and know that Allah is All-Seeing of what you do.”
Al-Baqarah (2:233)

7- Primary Custody Rights:

Islamic law grants women primary custody rights over children, recognizing their natural caregiving abilities. Upon divorce, the mother takes the children whether they are boys or girls, until they are old enough to understand and are able to choose. Then they can choose whether to live with the mother or the father. If the mother re-marries, then the children's care goes to the grandmother, or the father.

Hadith (1):

'Amr b. Shu'aib on his father's authority said that his grandfather (Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As) reported: 

"A woman said: Messenger of Allah, my womb is a vessel to this son of mine, my breasts, a water-skin for him, and my lap a guard for him, yet his father has divorced me, and wants to take him away from me. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: You have more right to him as long as you do not marry."
Source: Sunan Abi Dawud 2276

Equality and Differences Between Men and Women in Islam

As we explained earlier, in Islam, men and women are equal in the eyes of Allah. They both are accountable for their deeds, they both can attain the highest levels in paradise or hell fire, based on their deeds. There is no gender preference or superiority in Islam. 

“Whoever does righteousness, whether male or female, while he is a believer — We will surely cause him to live a good life, and We will surely give them their reward [in the Hereafter] according to the best of what they used to do.”
— [Qur’an 16:97]

There is no preference for one gender over the other in terms of value or potential for righteousness. However, Islam recognizes natural differences between men and women and assigns certain roles and responsibilities accordingly. These differences are divinely legislated by Allah, who has the most perfect knowledge and wisdom.

While we may contemplate the wisdom behind some of these rulings, our faith rests on trusting Allah’s guidance, not on human reasoning. Any perceived wisdom we reflect upon is not the sole or primary reason Allah made a ruling, but rather a reflection of our limited understanding of His infinite wisdom.

1. Jihad

Ruling:

Men are obligated and expected to participate in Islamic Jihad when required to, according to the rules explained in the section: Jihad vs terrorism. While women are exempted from that. Women are not required to fight the enemy.

Contemplated Wisdom:

• Women's general physical nature and family roles are considered. This exemption is a mercy that acknowledges the physical, emotional, and maternal responsibilities of women.

• Despite this, women have historically contributed in support roles, and even in battle (e.g., Nusaybah bint Ka’ab in the Battle of Uhud).

2. Prayer

Ruling:

• Men are either strongly recommended or obligated (based on legal viewpoint) to pray in congregation in the mosque if they can hear the call to prayer. Every man is obligated to attend the friday prayer and sermon unless he is unable (be it due to sickness, danger, etc.)

• Women are permitted to attend the mosque but are not obligated. They are also not obligated to attend the friday prayer nor summon, though they are allowed to attend if they wish.

Hadith:
“Do not prevent your women from going to the mosque, even though their homes are better for them.”
— [Sahih al-Bukhari 865; Sahih Muslim 442]

• Women are exempt from prayer during menstruation and do not need to make up missed prayers.

Contemplated Wisdom:

• Menstruation often causes pain, fatigue, and discomfort. Islam relieves women of certain duties during this time out of compassion and ease.

3. Fasting

Ruling:

• Women are exempt from fasting during menstruation, pregnancy, and breastfeeding if it affects their health or the baby’s.

• Missed fasts from Ramadan must be made up before the next Ramadan (if one was not fasting due to pregnancy and the other things mentioned above).

Contemplated Wisdom:

• Menstruation, pregnancy, and nursing deplete a woman’s strength. Islam considers this and provides flexibility, ensuring health is not compromised.

4. Seeking Knowledge

This was outlined in the previous tab of "Women's rights in Islam" under part 4. The right for Education.

5. Coverage (Hijab and Modesty)

Ruling:

• Both men and women are required to have modesty with varying degrees. Men are required to cover from the naval to under the knees in front of women other than their wives. If men look very attractive in other areas of the body and are showing them with the intention of tempting women then this is also not allowed, and they are required to cover it. So no shirtless social media pictures! 

• Women are required to cover their whole body except the face and the hands. They are not allowed to wear clothes that show their body shape or are transparent. 

This difference is catered to both the nature of men and women. As Islam wants a society that has stable families, rather than a society enslaved to sexual urges and desires. This is outlined in extensive details in the hijab section.

6. Marriage Responsibilities

This was outlines in the previous tab, of marriage responsibilities and obligations.

7. Testimony in Court

Ruling:

In testimony regarding writing down debt and contracts, it is required that two men are witnessing the contract. The alternative is one man and two women. The justification for this from the Quran is that the woman might forget so the other could remind her. So in this particular instance, the woman's testimony is half of a man in this financial matter.

Allah says in the Quran:
“...And bring to witness two witnesses from among your men. And if there are not two men [available], then a man and two women from those whom you accept as witnesses—so that if one of the women errs, then the other can remind her...”
— [Qur’an 2:282]

In other instances, that are related to child bearing the woman's testimony is worth more than a man's testimony. 

Contemplated Wisdom:

Women across history and in the majority of places in the world don't deal with financial matters as much, therefore, it is easier for them to forget details of the contracts or debts. However, in birth matters, women's testimony is more valued and significant as they deal with these matters beyond that of men.

8. Inheritance

Ruling:

Both men and women inherit different proportions from their relatives according to their position in relation to the deceased. 

Qur’an:
“Allah instructs you concerning your children: for the male, what is equal to the share of two females...”
— [Qur’an 4:11]

• Examples:

  • Son vs. Daughter: Son gets double, as he is financially responsible.

  • Husband vs. Wife: Husband inherits more if wife has no children.

  • Mother and Father: Equal shares if the deceased had children.

• According to scholars:

  • In 6 cases, women inherit more.

  • In 4 cases, men inherit more.

  • In over 10 cases, they inherit equally.

Contemplated Wisdom:

• A man's larger share often comes with the obligation to support others, while a woman’s share is her personal wealth.

For example, In the case of brothers and sisters, the man inherits double the portion of the woman. That is because the man is required to provide for his family, therefore, the inheritance is to cover for him and his family. While the woman is provided for by her husband, therefore, the inheritance she gets is only for her alone.

Conclusion

Islam recognizes the spiritual equality of men and women but assigns them distinct roles based on divine wisdom, not human preferences. These differences are not inequalities but complementary responsibilities that reflect the nature of men and women and the goal of creating a balanced, moral, and functioning society.

Contemplating the wisdom behind rulings is a form of reflection, but ultimate submission is to the will and command of Allah, whose knowledge and justice are perfect.

The practice of wearing a head covering is one of the oldest and most widespread customs in human history. It has appeared across many civilizations and religious traditions, often associated with modesty, spirituality, cultural identity, and devotion.

There are four main questions to consider regarding the hijab:

1. What is it?

2. Is it specific to Muslims?

3. Why is it worn?

4. Why does it apply differently to men and women?

1- The definition of hijab

The word "hijab" means barrier, and in Islam in the context of women cover, hijab means the outfit for women that covers the whole body except the face and the hands. Hijab also should not define the woman's body such as wearing tight clothes.

A woman is required to wear the hijab only in the presence of men that are not her family members. On the contrary, in front of other women, children, the husband and the male family members (Whom she can't have an intimate relationship with), she is not required to wear the hijab.

Allah says in the Quran:

“˹O Prophet!˺ Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity. That is purer for them. Surely Allah is All-Aware of what they do. And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and guard their chastity, and not to reveal their adornments except what normally appears. Let them draw their veils over their chests, and not reveal their ˹hidden˺ adornments except to their husbands, their fathers, their fathers-in-law, their sons, their stepsons, their brothers, their brothers’ sons or sisters’ sons, their fellow women, those ˹bondwomen˺ in their possession, male attendants with no desire, or children who are still unaware of women’s nakedness. Let them not stomp their feet, drawing attention to their hidden adornments. Turn to Allah in repentance all together, O  believers, so that you may be successful. ”
Surah Al-Nur (24:30, 31)

Footnote: what normally appears means i.e., the face, hands, outer clothes, rings, kohl, and henna.

Allah says in the Quran:

“O Prophet! Ask your wives, daughters, and believing women to draw their cloaks over their bodies. In this way it is more likely that they will be recognized ˹as virtuous˺ and not be harassed. And Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.”
Surah Al-Ahzab (33:59)

Notice how Allah tells the believing men to lower their gaze first. So even if the woman is fully naked, the man is still required to not look at her.

Based on understanding these verses, the hadith of the prophet peace be upon him and the application of his companions and community, scholars are divided into two opinions:

1) Two big schools of thought (Maliki and Hanafi) see that is allowed to show her face and hands only, but covering the whole body is obligatory in front of Men that are not family member, as the verse clarifies.

2) Two other big schools of thought (Shafi'i and Hanbali) see that the verse means cover all the body including the face (i.e. with niqab or burka).

A Muslim woman may choose to follower whichever of the four schools of thought she so wishes, as there is agreement that these four schools have are valid in their rulings, as they've gone through intrisic peer-reviewing by scholars in the tradition, fact-checking, expanding upon, etc. for almost 1300 years. If a Muslim woman decides to adhere to either of the four schools she is not to be blamed for her choice.

2. Is it specific to Muslims?

historically in Europe most women did cover their hair with some form of scarf, veil, hood or bonnet, and this only really collapsed in the 20th century, especially from the 1920s–1960s onward 

Check out this video: Why Europeans stopped wearing The Hijab

Some of the readers may remember seeing their grandmothers wearing the headscarf at all times in public, specially in Eastern Europe. Until today, rural christian communities in North America cover their hair in front of Men other than their husbands. In regions such as Romania, Ukraine, Western Moldavia, and Albania, head coverings remain an everyday practice for women.

There’s no single date, but the decline is clearly 20th‑century and tied to urbanization, fashion, and feminism. Cultural histories and documentaries on European head coverings note that the 1920s “flapper” era marks a profound shift: women cut their hair short, discarded older markers of respectability, and rejected older constraints including veils and heavy hats.

Hijab exists in various forms in Christianity and Judaism, and various cultures and societies. You can notice the hijab in all the depictions of Mary, the mother of Jesus, (peace be upon her and her son)  in churches across the world, even before advent of the prophet Muhammad (ﷺ).

In Christianity:
Head covering for Christian women has a history spanning nearly two millennia. The tradition is grounded in 1 Corinthians 11:4-7, which states: 

"Every man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head. But every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head - it is the same as having her head shaved. For if a woman does not cover her head, she might as well have her hair cut off; but if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should cover her head. A man ought not to cover his head, since he is the image and glory of God; but woman is the glory of man." 

Early Church Fathers including Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, John Chrysostom, and Augustine all attested to this practice. Today, different Christian groups observe this tradition to varying degrees:

• Catholic nuns wear veils as part of their religious attire. Traditional Catholic women historically covered their heads in church; Canon Law as late as 1917 mandated this, though it was repealed in 1983.

• Eastern Orthodox (Greek, Serbian, Russian, Egyptian, Syrian) women cover during worship.

• Ethiopian Orthodox women wear the netela (white cloth)

• Amish and Mennonite women still wear the head scarf in public.

• South Asian Christians use the dupatta in religious settings

In Judaism: 

Married Orthodox Jewish women cover their hair with a tichel (scarf), sheitel (wig), snood, or hat as required by tzniut (modesty law). Hasidic women follow highly specific community head covering codes.

In Sikhism:

  86% of Sikh women in India cover their heads outside the home. Both men and women wear the dastar (turban) as an article of faith representing honor, spirituality, and piety. Likewise in Hinduism they have the ghoonghat or dupatta in temple visits and in the presence of elderly.

3. Is there wisdom behind it?

As we clarified earlier, in Islam we do the commands of Allah because he is our creator and the creator of everything, and has knowledge of everything and we worship him alone. Once a person verifies that the Quran is from Allah with logic and evidence, and becomes a Muslim, he submits to the creator. So we don't do the commands of Allah based on our evaluation of it, but we can still see great wisdom from it. Here we outline some of it:

1. Protecting women from harm and harrasment:
   Throughout the history of humanity, we can see that women have been vulnerable in front of men, often oppressed by men. That is natural, as men have more physical strength and ability for aggression more than women. So a man who does not have ethics or morals can harm women.
   
   Recent movements like "Me too" has uncovered a tremendous amount of abuse of women through sexual harassment that happens from men in all different situations and positions in life.
   
   A Social experiment was done where a woman was made to walk in New York with hijab and without hijab. With hijab, nobody harrassed or annoyed her, while without hijab, she was harrased many times. You may watch it here: Woman walking in NYC with and without hijab
   
   

2.  Preventing the objectification of female bodies
   When a woman's body is constantly on display in public - in advertising, social media, entertainment, and everyday dress - it becomes a visual commodity. Psychological research confirms that exposure to sexualized female images causes men to unconsciously process women as objects rather than persons. The Princeton fMRI study showed that viewing scantily clad women deactivated the part of the brain responsible for empathy and social cognition - men literally stopped perceiving the women as people. Modesty interrupts this process. It asserts that a woman's person is not reducible to her body, and that her presence in public does not constitute an invitation for sexual evaluation.
   
   

3.  Protecting families and women interest
   100 years ago, a Man would only get to see one woman naked in his entire life, who would be his wife. Today, on the contrary, men within few buttons see thousands of naked women. Furthermore, men and women mix at work, school and other places, and with women revealing their bodies and with the lack of any regulations on sex, cheating becomes very common. This leads to harming both men, women and families.

4.  Protecting society as a whole from constant sexual stimulation
   All of these factors led to a society that is running on sexual stimulation, and constantly bombarded with sexual images everywhere. This ends up creating a cycle of frustration, lack of productivity, sadness, depression, harrassement and sexual abuse.

Why does it apply differently to men and women?

Men and women are not physiologically or psychologically identical in how visual attraction operates. This is not a religious claim, it is one of the most consistently documented findings in psychology and neuroscience. Men respond to visual sexual stimuli significantly more strongly and immediately than women, who tend to require emotional and relational context for attraction. Because men and women are physiologically and psychologically different in how visual attraction operates, therefore the same rule applied equally would not produce equal outcomes. 

A framework designed to regulate sexual tension must account for the actual nature of that tension, not an idealized version of it.

The following observations reflect this asymmetry as it manifests in contemporary society:

1. Women outfits are designed to show their skin, backs, belly, cleavage, thighs.

2. Hollywood parties often show women wearing dresses revealing most of their body, while men are wearing suits covering most of their body.

3. Ads often use women showing their bodies for attention

4. Bars and restaurants use waitresses and make them dress in revealing outfits.

5. Men are the majority in watching porn, while women are the majority in showing their bodies naked on only fans and get profit from it. Statistics show that 10% of the women between 18 to 24 in the US (1.5 Millions women) have an OnlyFans account.

6.  Women represent the overwhelming majority of those exploited in prostitution and sex trafficking - not because they freely chose commercial sexual activity, but because female sexuality is uniquely valuable as a commodity in a system dominated by male demand. This is not a reflection of female agency, but of female vulnerability to exploitation when protective frameworks are absent.

These are the practical outcomes of a world without modesty frameworks - documented in Western societies that have most thoroughly abandoned them. Against this backdrop, the question of whether Islamic modesty constitutes oppression deserves more careful thought than it typically receives.

So finally the big question: Is Hijab an oppression?

The answer is: it is a law made by the Creator to Muslims, both men and women of varying degrees, to organize aspects of their life. Muslim women adhere to it voluntarily, not forced by anyone. You can see that Muslim women in the west, including the ones that newly became Muslim after having a non Muslim western lifestyle also fully adhere to the hijab.

If you say that regulating clothes is an oppression, then you have to define what oppression is. Is it any rules? Then every person in the world is oppressed. Is it rules that are unnecessary? Then who determines what is necessary from what is not. Or is it rules that don't agree with the western opinions? I will leave that answer to you.

As we saw earlier, it protects women, men, and society overall. So the question of whether it is oppression or not, is now left for you to reflect upon.

Hijab protects you - but also shields your partner from temptation, and protects your relationship from constant comparison. because if you are covered from the eyes of other men, don't forget that other women are covered from the eyes of your man. 

We expand in the next tab on the comparison between western norms and definitions of freedom vs Islam.

Does the West Really Liberate Women? A Critical Look Through the Lens of Islam

In today’s dominant narrative, we often hear that women in the West are free, while women in Islam are oppressed. Feminists and secular liberal thinkers frequently argue that Islamic teachings, such as restrictions on sexual behavior, modest dress, and gender roles, are outdated because they don't align with modern Western norms. Meanwhile, they celebrate sexual liberation, gender fluidity, and minimal restrictions on personal behavior as signs of progress.

But is this narrative accurate? Has the West truly liberated women? Has the rejection of traditional boundaries resulted in a better life for women - or for society at large? And are the Islamic restrictions really oppression, or are they divine safeguards for dignity, stability, and fulfillment? This piece aims to rationally and objectively compare two worldviews - Islam and liberal feminism - and evaluate their real-life consequences, especially for women.

Key Differences Between Islam and Liberal Feminism

To start, let’s outline the core differences between Islam and liberal feminism in relation to women: 

1. Sexual Conduct:

Islam restricts sexual intimacy to marriage, ensuring commitment, responsibility, and moral boundaries.

Liberal feminism promotes sexual autonomy, allowing intimacy without commitment or restrictions.

2. Modesty and Dress:

Islam prescribes modest clothing, including the hijab.

Liberal feminism insists that women should wear whatever they choose, with no external moral guidelines.

3. Gender Interaction:

Islam sets boundaries between men and women (except between relatives), limiting unnecessary interaction and encouraging professionalism.

Liberal feminism sees such boundaries as outdated, advocating for complete equality in social interaction.

4. Gender Roles:

Islam recognizes distinct but complementary roles for men and women, with defined responsibilities.

Liberal feminism rejects fixed gender roles, advocating that all roles be interchangeable.

Then the question is: Are the restriction implemented by Islam justified? Are they indeed oppressive to women? Did liberal feminism free women? Did it make their life better, healthier, and more fun? 

Let's go through the points one by one: 

Sexual “Freedom” vs. Sexual Responsibility

Starting with the first point, sexual intimacy:

Islam limits sexual activity to marriage for several clear reasons:

1. the relationship is well defined and agreed upon by both partners.

2. Both Men and Women have well defined rights and responsibilities.

3. The relationship begins with the intention of long-term commitment.

That doesn't mean you can't divorce, rather divorce is very easy in Islam, within less than an hour actually. However, you have to enter the marriage with the intention of committing forever, otherwise the marriage is not valid.

In contrast, liberal feminism regards sex as a purely individual choice, often separated from commitment, family, or morality. Since the sexual revolution of the 1960s, driven by contraceptives and a shift in sexual norms; sex in many parts of the west has become casual, mechanical, and emotionally detached. It’s not unusual to hear stories of people engaging in sexual relationships without even knowing their partner’s last name. On the basis of this culture, women and men start engaging in sex very early on, with teens as young as 13 and 14 years old having sex with multiple partners already.

The question then becomes: Is sex totally benign that it doesn't need any restrictions? So let's think about this for a minute:

• If sex is easily available without commitment, with anyone and at anytime, then what would make anyone commit to one person? Why would a person prefer to be in a relationship with responsibilities and routine, when the person can get the sexual intimacy they want without any commitment? What incentive is there for men - or women - to form serious, lasting relationships?

• If a person decides to commit, the relationship never goes smoothly without any hardships. When difficulties arise in a relationship, why stay, when a new partner is just a swipe away? After some time, or some years, we all know the spark becomes less and less and then it fades away. So without any restrictions, why would people continue in the relationship?

There are so many options already, and they can cheat or get together with someone else the next day. We hear very often about a person who left their family after years for a fling, or the mother that left their children and ran away with a co-worker, and all the stories that we see occurring on a daily basis. According to a study published in Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, approximately 22% of married men and 14% of married women in the U.S. admit to cheating at least once.

All these notes come down to one main point:

Lack of any regulation for sex compromises the desire for commitment in the majority of people. 

We can observe the results of this on society:

1. Fewer young people are getting married or even entering long-term relationships. According to Pew Research (2021), 61% of adults under 35 in the U.S. are single. Only 22% are married, and that number keeps falling.

2. Relationships are fragile and easily dissolved, even the long term ones. Over 40-50% of marriages in the U.S. end in divorce, often due to infidelity or lack of long-term compatibility fostered by casual dating habits.

3. Cheating is common and often excused.

4. New forms of relationships like “situationships,” “talking stage,” "one night stands", and “friends with benefits” all built around emotional ambiguity and sexual access without stability. This leaves many - especially women - feeling emotionally exploited.

The Consequences: A Society Without Commitment

Then the next question becomes, is lack of commitment a problem, shouldn't we just let people do what they want? Actually, the breakdown of sexual ethics has profound effects - not just on individuals, but on entire societies. Let's then note the effects of this on society in general and on women in particular:

Wider Societal Collapse

1. Increase of broken marriages and therefore broken families: Due to the ease and availability of sex, cheating becomes common and boredom becomes easier, causing relationships to not last. Which means more children in broken homes, with major psychological effects on both mother and father as well as children.

2. Lack of new stable families: since no one wants to commit, the family structure is compromised, leading to problems of loneliness, depression, and support.

3. Children being left by parents: Since there is no obligations or responsibilities on individuals engaging in sex, children are often abandoned by either one or both of their parents. Whether this happens due to unplanned pregnancy from casual sex, or due to a parent just one day deciding to leave the family, the children end up carrying a massive cost. 

4. Fertility is Plummeting: There is a major lack of offspring to carry on the society. Since everyone is afraid to commit, the majority of people are preventing pregnancy, or delaying it a lot. The replacement fertility rate is 2.1 children per woman. In most Western countries, it’s now below 1.6, with countries like South Korea dropping to 0.72 - the lowest in history. The average age for first-time mothers in Europe is over 30 years old. Without immigration, these societies would have been extinct already.

5. Inverted Demographics: As fewer children are born and people delay family, society grows older, weaker, and less productive. With lack of youth, there are fewer workers, fewer caregivers, and more elderly dependents, which eventually leads to the society crumbling. Japan, Germany, and Italy are already facing economic crises due to shrinking youth populations.

Impact on Women Specifically

Let’s now focus on how this culture disproportionately impacts women:

1. Casual Sex Harms Women's Emotional Health
Sex isn’t just physical, it carries deep emotional and psychological weight, especially for women. After casual encounters, studies show women are far more likely than men to experience regret, sadness, and depression. A study published in Archives of Sexual Behavior found that 78% of women reported negative feelings (shame, sadness, emptiness) after one-night stands, compared to only 26% of men.

Study in the Nordic Countries 

With one partner left wanting more than just a night or a casual encounter, being hung up on the other person. The person then is stuck, between desiring a real connection, which is not part of the deal in the modern western world, and not being able to let go of the very high intimacy they get during sex with the other person. 

2. Single Motherhood is Rising Fast
When commitment is gone but intimacy remains, women are left to carry the consequences. In the U.S., about 1 in 5 children (21%) live with their mother only (U.S. Census, 2023). These women often face economic hardship, emotional strain, and a lack of support. According to Pew Research, single mothers are far more likely to live in poverty than two-parent households.

3. Unplanned pregnancies have surged
Women who conceive during casual encounters are often left to raise children alone or face the trauma of abortion.

4. Abortion Is Widespread - and Traumatic
In 2024, there were over 1 million abortions in the U.S. alone (Guttmacher Institute). Many women later report emotional trauma, guilt, or psychological stress. While abortion is framed as freedom, it is often a painful last resort caused by lack of commitment or support from men. Furthermore, this abortion epidemic carries a huge healthcare cost and burden on the tax payers. Importantly, rape is not included in this category, it is a seperate category and deserves its own decision making and victim support

We are not excusing any rapist or man from their actions, and blaming it on women by any stretch of imagination, only documenting the phenomenon and observing the connections to the sexual habits of this age.

5. Difficulty Finding Committed Partners
When women became available for sexual intimacy without any restrictions, men lost any motivation to commit in a relationship. Therefore, when women want to settle down and have a committed relationship, they hardly find any men that want to commit. When they do find the rare men that want that, they leave them whenever they are bored with the relationship. Since sex is abundant and without any restrictions, those men cheat on their women whenever they feel like it, and without any consequences, as we explained earlier.

A 2023 study from the Institute for Family Studies found that over 40% of single women in their 30s report difficulty finding men willing to commit.

Modesty: Restriction or Protection?

The second part:

Modesty - represented in covering clothes, and covering the head with the hijab - is surprisingly often shamed in the west, and regarded as a sign of oppression. Countries like France have gone as far as banning the hijab in public schools and institutions, denying Muslim women the freedom to dress as they choose - all in the name of “liberation.” The message is clear: you can be as revealing as you like, but you can’t cover yourself.

While this extreme view isn’t the case in every secular society, the general Western consensus still frames modest clothing - especially the hijab - as oppressive. But is it? Or does modesty serve a deeper purpose that’s been forgotten?

After we already discussed above, the effects of sex without any rules or regulations, we have to link it to the modesty restrictions of Islam. 

If we accept that regulating sexual behaviour is necessary, the next logical question becomes: If the goal is to regulate sexual intimacy, is it then necessary to regulate what individuals wear?

We already discussed the Islamic regulation of modesty in a previous section. As we explained in detail, Islam doesn’t enforce modesty only on women. Both men and women are given detailed, fair guidelines:

• Men must cover from the navel to the knees, and are commanded to lower their gaze and not look at women with lust.

• Women are required to cover everything except the face and hands in public, and likewise must lower their gaze around men.

However, Islam also makes clear exceptions:

• Women are not required to wear hijab in front of their fathers, sons, brothers, uncles, grandfathers, or other women. The principle is simple: where sexual tension doesn’t exist, full-body covering is not required. This alone demonstrates that modesty in Islam is not about erasing women’s identity - but about protecting their dignity and reinforcing sexual boundaries.

Do Clothes Influence Sexual Behavior?

Let’s answer two critical questions:

1. Does what people wear influence sexual behaviour?

Yes, overwhelmingly so.

Psychological and neuroscientific research shows that what a person wears affects how others perceive and respond to them, especially in a sexual context. In one fMRI study from Princeton University, when male participants viewed images of scantily clad women, the part of the brain associated with tool recognition activated, implying objectification. The men’s brains responded to the women as objects, not as people.

Another study published in Psychological Science found that men perceive women in revealing clothing as less intelligent, less competent, and more sexually available - even when all other factors are equal.

These aren't Islamic sources, these are Western scientific studies confirming that visual sexual stimuli affect male behavior - sometimes unconsciously.

2. Are men and women equal in sexual attractiveness?

Liberal feminism claims men and women are the same in how they perceive sexuality; but reality - and data - says otherwise.

If men and women were sexually aroused in the same way, we would expect their clothing and behavior to reflect similar norms. But look around: Women’s fashion is far more revealing, often emphasizing body curves, bare skin, and tight clothing. Crop tops, short skirts, low-cut shirts, these are not anomalies, they are mainstream.

Meanwhile, if men dressed the same way, they’d be labeled “gay” or seen as inappropriate. That’s not just social convention, it reveals something fundamental.

Here’s what the data tells us:

• Men are overwhelmingly visual. According to neuroscience research, men’s brains show stronger activity in visual and reward areas when exposed to sexual imagery, while women’s brains respond more emotionally or contextually.

• Porn consumption is dominated by men. Over 70% of porn viewers are male, and the top websites are designed to cater to male fantasies - not emotional connections.

• OnlyFans stats (2023): Recent statistics estimate that around 1.4 million American women aged 18 to 24 use OnlyFans as content creators. This translates to approximately 10% to 14% of the entire female population in that specific age demographic in the United States. That’s 1.5 million women earning money by showing their bodies online - primarily to men. Meanwhile, male creators account for less than 10% of total earnings - because women generally don’t pay to look at male bodies.

On platforms like Tinder:

• A study by Quartz found that the average woman receives 10x more matches than the average man.

• A woman of average attractiveness can receive thousands of likes, while a very attractive man gets maybe 10–20 per day.

On Instagram:

• Women with bikini photos gain massive followings and engagement.

• Men posting shirtless photos don’t get nearly the same attention - unless they’re celebrities or influencers.

All this leads to a main conclusion: men and women are not the same in their attraction to the other gender. Men are visual creatures,  they attracted to women visually based on their body, while women need an emotional connection. They are not the same - and their modesty needs are not identical.

Now that we established that men and women are not the same, and that women bodies carry a unique sexual appeal. We turn to the main question, if the goal is to regulate sex, is it necessary to order women to cover their body? 

When modesty disappears, and women’s bodies are on display everywhere - from social media to advertisements to public streets - society pays a price:

1. The commodification of female sexuality

When modesty norms collapse and female bodies become a primary form of social and economic currency, women do not gain power - they gain a new form of vulnerability. The billion-dollar industries built around female nudity - pornography, OnlyFans, cam sites, advertising - are not evidence of female liberation. They are evidence of female sexuality being monetized for male consumption at industrial scale. The women who participate are largely responding to economic incentives created by a system, not freely expressing themselves outside of it. The liberation framing obscures who is actually benefiting.

2. Porn is an epidemic

The porn industry generates over $15 billion annually in the U.S. alone. Access is instant, endless, and free - and it’s shaping how men view real women.

3. Sexual harassment and assault are widespread

• In the UK, a 2022 study by UN Women found that 97% of women aged 18–24 reported experiencing sexual harassment.

• In the U.S., over 80% of women have experienced street harassment (Stop Street Harassment survey).

4. Men are overstimulated - and less productive

When men are exposed to constant sexual stimuli, it impacts focus, motivation, and productivity. Studies have found that regular porn consumption leads to lower concentration, reduced interest in real-life relationships, and increased impulsivity.

5. Unrealistic expectations ruin relationships

In the past, most men saw the naked body of one or two women in their entire life - usually their spouse. Today, a man can see thousands of naked women in one hour. This warps attraction and raises unrealistic expectations, making long-term commitment harder. As a woman, your “competition” isn’t just your partner’s co-worker or neighbor - it’s every Instagram model and adult performer he can view on demand. 

That means that the threshold of stimulation for a man is significantly higher. Which means you as a woman is always in competition for your man's attraction with thousands of women. That leads to easily losing attraction in relationships and easily trying to look for something else, which contributes to the lack of commitment problem. 

Hijab protects you - but also shields your partner from temptation, and protects your relationship from constant comparison. because if you are covered from the eyes of other men, don't forget that other women are covered from the eyes of your man. 

6. Harassment rates drop with modest clothing

A study in the UK was done, which was called women are harrssed everywhere, everytime. Before you jump to say that it is the fault of men and they should stop and women should bot bear the responsibility, you have to think how to protect women. 

Some claim that harassment is solely men’s fault - and while that’s true, what has been done to stop them? Despite countless campaigns, the rates remain high.
Expecting men to change overnight is idealistic. In the meantime, modesty acts as a shield, reducing exposure to predators.
It’s like walking into a high-crime area with $10,000 in a transparent bag and saying, “I shouldn't have to hide this. Thieves should stop stealing.”
You may be right. But you're also vulnerable.

7. Women are reduced to objects

From strip clubs to Instagram reels to ads selling cars and burgers - women’s bodies are used to sell everything. Modesty pushes back against this objectification.
In one Princeton study, when men saw women in bikinis, the medial prefrontal cortex - the part of the brain responsible for empathy - shut down. Men literally stopped seeing women as people.

Conclusion: Restriction or Protection?

The question this comparison raises is not whether women in the West have more formal freedoms than women in Islamic societies - in many respects they do. The question is whether those freedoms have produced the outcomes they promised: emotional fulfillment, stable relationships, protection from exploitation, and social flourishing. The data increasingly suggests a gap between the promise and the result 

A serious feminist response to this analysis would argue that the problems documented here - single motherhood, emotional exploitation, objectification - are consequences of male irresponsibility, not female freedom. Women shouldn't have to cover themselves because men can't control themselves. Men should simply be held accountable.

This is a fair point, and Islam agrees with it partially - the Quran addresses men's conduct before women's dress, and holds men fully accountable for their gaze and behavior. But accountability and protection are not mutually exclusive. A society can demand better behavior from men and provide women with a framework that reduces their exposure to harm in the meantime. Waiting for male behavior to change entirely before offering women any protection is not liberation - it is an experiment conducted at women's expense, and the results of that experiment are now visible.

The documented consequences for women in societies without Islamic sexual ethics include: higher rates of emotional harm from casual sexual encounters, rising single motherhood with attendant poverty and isolation, systematic exploitation of female sexuality for commercial profit, increasing difficulty forming committed long-term relationships, and the psychological toll of existing in a culture that simultaneously demands sexual availability and punishes its consequences.

The documented consequences for society include: declining family formation, falling fertility rates that threaten long-term demographic stability, rising numbers of children raised without fathers, and the social costs of mass loneliness and disconnection.

These are not theological claims. They are observable, measurable, and already unfolding in the societies that have most thoroughly rejected the framework Islam prescribes.