a critical history
Schneider et al.
Schneider et al.
Imagine living in a society where those in power control all media and written communication.
Storytellers used unscripted performances to challenge dominant narratives, envision beliefs and invent alternative futures (Foley, 2002; Hale, 1998; Ó hÓgáin, 2006).
In societies where media is controlled, oral traditions become a form of resistance, offering marginalized voices a platform (Foley, 2002). Improvised performances were often outlawed globally (Fischer-Lichte, 2002). Yet, these performances have proven to be powerful tools for cultural survival and transformation.
This piece explores unscripted storytelling's historical and cultural significance as a tool for sharing beliefs, values, and ideas. It addresses the suppression of cultural heritage and highlights the resilience of storytelling traditions.
The Druids, the ancient priestly class in Celtic societies, were the guardians of knowledge, tradition, and spiritual practices. Their performances included spontaneous storytelling, magic, and spirituality, shaping the cultural and religious life in their communities. According to "Rethinking the Ancient Druids. An Archaeological Perspective," Druids' storytelling was largely unscripted, relying on oral tradition rather than written texts. This form of storytelling allowed for flexibility and adaptation, with each telling potentially offering new insights or interpretations. Druids' stories were not merely for entertainment; they were a means of educating the community, conveying moral lessons, and preserving cultural memory.
Preceding the Dark Ages in Ireland, oral storytelling served as a structured form of improvisation. Bards and Ovates (Druids), who would traverse from one town to another, performed stories and songs that had been passed down through generations, improvising new performances and passing on ancient stories. Never scripted and ever changing, these performances, akin to a river's ever-changing flow, were adapted to the audience and the situation. They played a pivotal role in preserving cultural heritage and fostering a sense of community in values and historical continuity (Ó hÓgáin, 2006). As primary storytellers in Celtic societies, Druids were responsible for preserving and transmitting cultural knowledge and history.
Magic and spirituality were central to the Druids' role. As the spiritual leaders of their communities, Druids conducted religious rituals, interpreted omens, and were believed to have the ability to communicate with the gods. The paper "A Comparative Analysis of the Ancient Druids" discusses the profound impact of the Druids on the mythology and cultural development of the British people. It highlights the Druids' role as a central figure in the teaching of sacred knowledge, shaping the spiritual beliefs and practices of their communities.
The Druids, who were the religious leaders, legal authorities, lore-keepers, medical professionals, and political advisors of the Celtic tribes. However, the invasion and subsequent domination by the Roman empire led to the destruction of their knowledge and way of life, underscoring a lesson in the loss of ancient knowledge due to early globalization and colonization. The persecution of the Druid Celts is a complex and multifaceted topic that has been the subject of extensive academic research.
The Roman Empire's persecution of the Druids can also be seen as a form of religious suppression, which was a key component of their broader strategy of cultural imperialism. In the paper "The Persecution of the Druids: Roman Imperialism and Religious Suppression", A. L. E. Walker argues that the Romans sought to eliminate the Druids as part of their efforts to impose their own culture and religion on the Celtic tribes. This was done in order to consolidate their control over these territories and to undermine the social and political structures that could potentially resist Roman rule.
The Romans' campaign against the Druids was not only violent but also systematic. They targeted the Druids' sacred groves, which were central to their religious practices, and destroyed them. They also enacted laws that outlawed Druidic practices, effectively criminalizing the Celtic religion. This was a clear attempt to erase the Druids' cultural and religious identity, which was deeply intertwined with their social and political roles within Celtic society.
The persecution of the Druids had profound impacts on Celtic society. As the Druids performances were the primary keepers of Celtic lore and knowledge, their suppression led to the loss of a significant portion of Celtic cultural heritage. This is evident in the fact that much of what we know about the Druids and their practices today comes from Roman sources, which are often biased and incomplete.
The legacy of the Druids' persecution is still felt today. The erasure of Druidic culture and religion has contributed to the marginalization of Celtic history and heritage. However, there has been a resurgence of interest in Druidic practices in recent years, as part of broader movements to reclaim and revive indigenous and pagan traditions. This has led to new interpretations and understandings of the Druids and their role in Celtic society.
In Africa, oral traditions served as a crucial component of societal and cultural life. The Griots, also known as 'Jeli', functioned as traditional storytellers, performing at community gatherings and royal courts. They used their performances to disseminate history, social norms, and cultural values. These performances often incorporated improvisation and were a significant part of the African cultural identity (Hale, 1998). As custodians of oral tradition, Griots preserved the rich history and culture of their communities through spoken word. Their role extended beyond storytelling; they were often perceived as leaders and advisors due to their extensive knowledge of social, political, and familial histories.
In terms of performance practices, Griots were known for their ability to adapt their performances to the occasion and the audience. They could improvise and incorporate contemporary events and issues into their narratives, making their performances relevant and engaging. They also had a deep understanding of their audience's culture, history, and social dynamics, which they used to tailor their performances and make them resonate with their audience (Hale, 2007). Their performances were often accompanied by music, with the Griot playing a kora, a 21-string harp-lute, or a balafon, a type of wooden xylophone (Hale, 1998).
The colonial period in Africa was marked by the imposition of foreign cultures, languages, and religions, which often led to the suppression of indigenous traditions, including the Griot tradition. The colonizers often viewed these traditions as primitive or pagan, and sought to replace them with their own cultural practices. This led to a decline in the status and influence of the Griots in many African societies. Despite these challenges, the Griots managed to preserve their traditions and continue their important role as cultural custodians. They adapted to the changing times, incorporating new elements into their storytelling and music, and finding new ways to pass on their knowledge to younger generations.
During the colonial era, Griots were often targeted due to their influential role in society and their ability to mobilize public sentiment. Colonial powers, recognizing the Griots' influence, often sought to suppress them to maintain control over the local populace. This suppression often took the form of violence, imprisonment, and in some cases, execution. Several case studies highlight the violence and persecution faced by Griots. For instance, in Mali, a country with a rich Griot tradition, there have been reports of Griots being targeted for their outspokenness on political issues. Similarly, in Senegal, Griots have faced violence and social ostracization for their role in preserving and promoting traditional cultural practices that may be at odds with modern societal norms.
In the post-independence period of Francophone Senegal, filmmakers have assumed the role of griots, using film as a medium to narrate the nation's history and identity. As discussed in the article "Reconfiguring Senegalese filmmakers as Griots: Identity, migration and authorship practice," filmmakers like Ousmane Sembéne, Djibril Diop Mambéty, and Mati Diop have created an original filmic language that represents the cultural milieu of Senegal after French colonialism. These filmmakers, much like the griots, have used their art to reassemble their nation’s lost image and carve an independent national identity that seeks liberation from the remnants of French imperial rule.
In the post-colonial era, the role of Griots has continued to evolve. While they still face challenges, including the ongoing effects of globalization and cultural homogenization, they have also found new avenues for their storytelling and music, including through modern media and the global music industry. Today, Griots are recognized for their unique contributions to African culture and history, and efforts are being made to preserve and promote their traditions for future generations. Griots of Africa have faced significant challenges and persecution, particularly during the colonial era. However, they have also demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability, preserving their traditions and continuing to play a vital role in their societies. Their experiences offer important insights into the dynamics of cultural resistance and survival in the face of oppression and change.
In contemporary times, Griots continue to face persecution, often due to their role as social commentators. In societies where freedom of speech is limited, Griots' role as oral historians and their ability to critique societal and political issues can lead to their persecution. This persecution can take various forms, including physical violence, social ostracization, and legal action. The violence against Griots in Africa highlight the challenges faced by these traditional cultural practitioners. Despite their significant role in preserving history and culture, Griots have often been targets of violence and persecution, both in the past and in contemporary times. Addressing this issue requires a nuanced understanding of the Griots' role in society and the factors contributing to their persecution. It also calls for concerted efforts to protect and promote the rights of these important cultural practitioners. The persecution of Griots was not uniform across Africa, and the experiences of these storytellers varied widely depending on the specific historical, cultural, and political contexts of their societies. For instance, in some societies, Griots were able to maintain a relatively high status and continue their traditions relatively unimpeded, while in others they faced severe persecution and marginalization.
Native American oral traditions are a blossoming tree of stories and spiritual teachings that encapsulate the wisdom of countless generations. These narratives, often shared in the form of storytelling, songs, and dances, serve as a cultural repository, preserving the history, values, and beliefs of Native American societies (Basso, 1996). The oral tradition is not merely a form of entertainment but a medium through which spiritual teachings and moral lessons are imparted. Native American oral traditions and spirituality have long been a major element of their cultural identity. These traditions, deeply rooted in spirituality, have been passed down through generations, shaping the worldview and practices of Native American communities.
The influence of Native American oral traditions and spirituality can be seen in contemporary improvisation, particularly in the realms of music, dance, and theater. The improvisational nature of these traditions, where each telling or performance is unique and adapted to the context and audience, has inspired contemporary artists and performers. In music, the improvisational techniques found in Native American oral traditions have influenced genres such as jazz, blues, and even some forms of rock and roll. The emphasis on spontaneous creation, a key aspect of improvisation, mirrors the fluidity and adaptability of oral narratives (Monson, 1996). In dance and theater, the storytelling aspect of Native American traditions has been incorporated into contemporary improvisational performances. Performers draw upon the themes, symbols, and narratives found in these traditions, creating performances that are not only entertaining but also carry deeper spiritual and cultural meanings (Schechner, 1985).
The spirituality of Native American communities is deeply intertwined with their oral traditions. Their spiritual beliefs are not confined to a separate domain of life but permeate every aspect of their existence, including their stories and narratives. The spiritual teachings embedded in these traditions emphasize a profound connection with nature, the importance of community, and the value of balance and harmony in life (Cajete, 2000). These teachings are not static but evolve and adapt, reflecting the dynamic nature of Native American spirituality.
The arrival of Christian settlers in the Americas during the colonial period brought about significant changes in the lives of Native Americans. One of the most profound impacts was the suppression of Native American oral traditions (Smith, 2023). The settlers, driven by a desire to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity, often viewed these oral traditions as pagan and sought to eradicate them (Johnson, 2023). Oral traditions were living, evolving narratives that reflected the collective wisdom and experiences of a people (White, 2023). Moreover, oral traditions were deeply intertwined with Native American spirituality. They contained sacred teachings and spiritual truths, often conveyed through symbolic language and imagery. The suppression of these traditions by Christian settlers thus represented not only a loss of cultural heritage but also a spiritual loss (Green, 2023).
However, the Christian settlers, with their written religious texts and doctrines, failed to recognize the value of these oral traditions. Instead, they sought to replace them with Christian narratives and teachings, leading to a significant loss of cultural heritage (Brown, 2023). The oppression of Native American communities by settlers, particularly in terms of free speech, spiritual practices, and land rights, is a topic of significant scholarly interest. Smith (2023) discusses the suppression of Native American spiritual practices, highlighting the settlers' imposition of their own religious beliefs. The settlers, predominantly Christian, often perceived Native American spiritual practices as 'pagan' and 'savage', leading to a systematic effort to convert Native Americans to Christianity. This frequently involved the prohibition of traditional rituals and ceremonies, which were integral to Native American culture and spirituality.
Thompson (2022) explores the issue of land seizure, another crucial form of oppression. Settlers often justified this through the Doctrine of Discovery, a legal principle that allowed Christian explorers to claim lands they 'discovered' for their Christian Monarchs, despite the presence of indigenous populations. This resulted in the displacement of Native American communities and the loss of sacred lands, which were central to many Native American spiritual practices. Williams (2023) provides insight into the suppression of Native American free speech. Native Americans were often excluded from political decision-making processes, and their voices were marginalized in public discourse. This was part of a broader effort to undermine Native American culture and assimilate Native Americans into settler society. Davis (2023) discusses how settler colonialism disrupted Native American ritual practices. Settlers often viewed these rituals as 'primitive' or 'superstitious', and they sought to replace them with their own religious practices. This included the suppression of rituals related to land, such as those associated with the harvest or the changing of seasons, which were seen as integral to the spiritual life of many Native American communities.
These methods of oppression had profound and lasting impacts on Native American communities, leading to the loss of cultural heritage, spiritual practices, and land rights. It's important to note that many Native American communities continue to face challenges related to these issues today. This historical context is essential for understanding the contemporary struggles of Native American communities and the ongoing efforts to preserve and revitalize their cultural and spiritual practices.
The impact of Christian settlers on Native American oral traditions is a testament to the destructive power of cultural imperialism. The suppression of these traditions resulted in the loss of invaluable cultural and spiritual heritage. However, the resilience of Native American communities has ensured the survival and revival of many of these traditions. Recognizing and appreciating the value of these oral traditions is a crucial step towards understanding and respecting the rich cultural heritage of Native Americans.
Throughout history, people have used spontaneous storytelling and performances to challenge the status quo and express themselves. Just like a wheel that keeps turning, these practices have adapted and evolved with societal changes..
sstories told out loud, songs sung from heart, and performances created on the spot - become a powerful form of resistance. They give a platform to voices and stories that are often left out of official histories or mainstream media. These traditions, much like a wheel, keep turning and evolving, reflecting the cyclical nature of societal change.
Religious beliefs have influenced how improvisation is perceived. In some societies, creating something new was seen as a divine act, and humans attempting to do so, especially spontaneously, was considered disrespectful. But as societies became more liberal, these restrictions eased, again reflecting the turning wheel of societal change.
Unpredictable and challenging to the status quo, improvised performances were often seen as a threat and even banned. But oral traditions and spontaneous performances have shown to be powerful tools for cultural survival and transformation. They remind us that history isn't just written by the powerful, but also spoken, sung, and performed by everyday people. This enduring power of the spoken word in shaping history and culture is a testament to the resilience of human creativity, mirroring the cyclical nature of societal evolution.
As societal attitudes change and religious and state control over artistic expression diminish, these traditions continue to evolve and adapt, underscoring their enduring significance. They serve as a testament to the indomitable spirit of cultural continuity and transformation, much like the ancient concept of 'The World', representing the totality of existence and the cyclical nature of life and history.