The Supernatural
The Supernatural
The Supernatural, consists of three chapters. It starts with an analysis on about 80 notes concerning human destiny, followed by nearly 200 narratives on the subject of heaven, gods, and the underworld, whereas the final chapter presents approximately 300 stories about ghosts.
It is understood, that each individual can influence his predestined fate to a certain degree through his character, behaviour, and deeds for better or worse. Every human action is rewarded or punished by supernatural retribution and thus has an impact on success or failure in a person's life. Therefore, it is advantageous to know about one's fate in order to actively influence it for the necessary better, or, as Richard J. Smith writes, "to establish fate (li ming) – that is, devise a moral strategy" (Smith 1993, 145).
Unsurprisingly, there are various divining techniques that have been very popular during the Qing dynasty. The stories of the YWCT mention physiognomy (相人, 相面), word analysis (測字), and geomancy (風水); as well as different kinds of horoscopic calculations (八字). The latter can be used in addition to astrology (星命, 占星), the five elements and activities (五行), or in combination with the ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches (干支). Most of all among the mantic arts, the planchette or spirit-writing (扶乩) is referred to.
Heaven, Gods and Underworld
Heaven stands at the highest point of the universal order. Right underneath, a variety of gods reside and function as intermediaries between heaven and humans. Whereas exceptional individuals can become gods, certain gods have the responsibility to oversee, help or punish humans. They also have to take care that each human dies and arrives in the underworld on time. The underworld is believed to be a place where every dead person is judged for his character as well as good and bad deeds during his lifetime. It therefore can be said that the living stand between heaven and the underworld.
There are many definitions and ideas of heaven. As Stephen Sharot writes, tian was attributed with various meanings that differed with respect to impersonal or personal, and passive or active idioms (Sharot 2001, 75). For example, there is the idea of an amorphous divinity, which is at the peak of a heavenly pantheon and called the Supreme Emperor, shangdi 上帝. In popular terms he is also named the Heavenly Emperor, tiandi 天帝 or Jade Emperor, yuhuang dadi 玉皇大帝. Furthermore, this divinity is also the highest ruler of the underworld. Heaven is additionally described as a paradise in which the subordinated gods reside. By means of these gods, especially the household gods, a direct link between heaven and humans takes place. Thus, a communicative as well as a graphic triad with men in the centre exists. This consists of the underworld in which the dead dwell, the terrestrial world where the living exist, and heaven in which humans reside, who have become gods. Further on, there is the concept of a physical heaven, which is yang 陽 and in opposition to earth, which is yin 陰. Heaven can also be understood as having amorphous ethical qualities and moral principles. It is responding to human morality and determining social status along with wealth. Heaven is further an equivalent of the word 'nature' and the source of all phenomena and processes of natural changes.[1] This includes all kind of 'fate', ming 命 or tianming 天命, which can be seen as the causal condition of every living being.[2] In the Confucian sense 'fate' is understood to be a series or existence of predestined situations, resulting out of natural processes of eternal cosmological changes. Thus, an essential unity between heaven, earth, as well as man exists and a sincere human can assist between the power of heaven and earth to form a triad with them (Smith 1994, 149).[3]
Gods can be divided into three main kinds who reside in different places, are individually honoured, and to whom sacrifices are made according to their hierarchy. The higher and more universal gods exist in heaven whereas the ones who have the responsibility to judge the dead live in the underworld. Gods, who are directly occupied with human affairs, dwell on earth and can be separated into bureaucratic and more individual ones. The individual gods are humans, who became divine and are therefore identified with their personality. The bureaucratic gods are known by their official posts in a supernatural hierarchy. These posts are temporary and the gods can be degraded or promoted, as is the case with their earthly counterpart. The differences between the worldly and otherworldly bureaucracy are that the living want to get into contact with gods by way of sacrifices. They hope to receive help and support concerning personal problems, illness, or family matters. Therefore, gods seem to be more an equivalent of ideal earthly officials, than of real ones' (Ahern 1981, 1, 99, 102).
Independent from their origin or title, the existence of gods is proven by their efficiency and they are worshipped accordingly. As Laurence Thompson states: “Western man worships God as almighty because God made him; the Chinese demand service from their gods because man made them.” (Thompson 1979, 58). In case prayers are not responded to, the god will be demoted and ignored (Ibid., 59; Harrell 1974, 204–206; Wolf 1974, 160); or if he does not act according to his obligation, he will be punished by his superiors as well as publicly by humans. Here, the supernatural bureaucracy is not held in higher regard than the terrestrial, but is seen as an equal system. Gods have human qualities including weakness of character and the lower their rank the more obvious this becomes. Even though in general they act for the common good of human society, they are easily offended, punish individuals for personal reasons, and are bribable.
Many ideas about the netherworld are of Buddhist origin, as for example, that there are numerous hells, whose highest judge is King Yama, also called Yanluo wang 閻羅王. The first hell is an administrative courtroom, in which the soul or ghost of the deceased is interrogated by Yanluo wang.[4] Each hell has its own tribunal and judge (mingwang 冥王), who in turn has his subordinated officials and employees. The god of the Taishan, one of the five sacred mountains in the province of Shandong, is understood as the representation of shangdi 上帝 on earth and officially honoured. According to popular belief he is the supreme ruler of the underworld and known as Dongyue [dadi] 東嶽 [大帝] 'Eastern Peak [Great Emperor]' (Taylor 1990, 148–149; Lai 1982, 11–12). The bureaucratic organisation of the netherworld keeps a register for Dongyue of the date of death for every human. At this date, the dead person has to appear before the judges of the underworld. It is assumed that all dead are judged alike, regardless of gender, age, or social class. As an aid for a thorough evaluation, the judges have a mirror of retribution (yejing 業鏡) which not only reveals the misdeeds an individual has committed during his lifetime, but also his moral intentions and most secret thoughts.
After the ghost of a recently dead person has been interrogated in the City God temple and a final report is written, he will be accompanied to the first courtroom of the underworld. Here his further fate will be determined by Yanluo wang and the dead human starts his passage of posthumous judgement. Especially moral individuals can directly descend to the Western Paradise of heaven. Others will be judged and punished according to their misdeeds, before they will be reborn as humans or animals. An individual's rebirth therefore depends on his whole previous lifetime, whereas his lifespan depends on his character, good and bad deeds.[5]
Every human has at least two 'souls', hun 魂 and po 魄 that will continue to exist after a person's death. As these souls can have influence on the living, and easily become discontent, it is advisable to know how treat and pacify them.
The hun-soul consists of the yang-component of the person and the po-soul of the yin-component. Upon death, the hun-soul ascents upward, whereas the po-soul stays with the fading corpse and slowly diffuses. The yang-polar hun is worshipped as the ancestral soul in the ancestral tablet and also called shen 神. It can be established through proper death rituals and is believed to ideally have a positive influence on the surviving family members. On the other hand, the yin-polar po is understood as a restless ghost soul (gui 鬼), which needs properly observed funerary rites for conciliation (Ebner von Eschenbach, Freiin 1995, 118–120, 124–130 ).
Even after an orderly burial, ghosts belong to the kind of supernatural beings, to whom humans get into contact by way of presenting offerings. One feels obliged to do so towards the spirits of one's ancestors, is afraid of their indignation, and hopes for personal benefit; whereas one wants to keep the dead of strangers at a distance by offerings, so that they will not do any damage (Wolf 1974, 160 ).
NOTES
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[1] About the different definitions and ideas, see also Smith 1994, 148, 175; Stevens 2001, 50; Feuchtwang 1974, 114–115; Freedman 1974, 39; and Hall 1987, 206.
[2] Ming 命 also means the mandate of Heaven, nature, and the natural endowment of humans. Smith 1994, 149. David L. Hall makes clear that there is a difference between tianming 天命 and ming 命: 'Where t’ien ming means the causal conditions constituting the whole of existence as perceived from a particular perspective, ming can mean the same, or can also mean the causal conditions constituting a particular phenomenon, without necessary reference to the whole.' Hall 1987, 213. Although an individual has less control over ming (contextual conditions) than over tianming, this is largely due to his degree of self-realisation (215). Thus, knowledge of Heaven is connected to self-knowledge (207). The more intensely focused, the greater is the awareness of the role one can play in determining ones own conditions. Hall 1987, 207, 215.
[3] Smith 1994, 149. This understanding does not only concern the individual, but heaven also gives and withdraws his mandate to the ruling dynasty and the emperor as the 'son of Heaven'.
[4] See also Eberhard 1967, 24; 1986, 142–143; Pimpaneau 1995a, 218–224; Teiser 1988, 183 and Goodrich 1981, 67–75.
[5] See Stevens 2001, 67, 69; Pimpaneau 1995a, 210–211, 213 and Eberhard 1967, 17–18; Huang 1990, 82, fn 7; The mirror of retribution is also named karma mirror that reflects past deeds and to make matters worse, there is additionally a mirror of hidden thoughts (xinjing 心鏡).