On Superconductivity, Dimensionality, and Destructive Interference: The Destructive Interference Theory of Superconductivity

Donald J. Dodd

Center for Gravitational Field Study, West Hartford, Connecticut, USA

Email: ddodd3329@gmail.com 

Abstract

The “Destructive Interference Theory of Superconductivity” is based on a hypothetical relationship between the destructive interference of phonons and the effect lower energy density has on dimensionality. This lower energy density and subsequent high number of dimensions with open apertures, higher dimensionality, allows the quantum entanglement of electrons.

The hypothesis is predicated on a second hypothesis, the “Theory of Dimensionality,” describing, what Einstein characterized as a 4-dimensional spacetime fabric, as a highly dimensional sub-plank-sized quantum particle.

At quantum mechanical scales, energy manifests itself as discrete packets of energy called quanta, and it should be apparent that Einstein's spacetime fabric is no exception.

Effects such as wormholes, tunneling, and quantum entanglement are confined to a highly dimensional quantum mechanical world because, at higher energy densities, in joules per meter cubed (J/m3), well below higher energy density found at room temperature, the normally open apertures of the dimensions that allow these effects, are closed. [26] The innate spring tension that holds the apertures of the many dimensions open, and allows energy to pass through them, will close in sequence from the highest dimension to the lowest as energy density increases, like a force compressing a spring.

Phonon destructive interference, occurring when two matter waves of the same amplitude in opposite directions come together and cancel each other out, plays a critical role in the formation of lower energy density regions within a solid. [25]

A phonon is a bosonic particle with vibration frequencies that typically range from 10 to 30 THz with an amplitude from 0.03 to 0.08 angstroms. [17] This wave-like virtual particle exhibits properties that include constructive and destructive interference, similar to the light and dark regions of the well-known double slit experiment.

There is an inverse relationship between highly dimensional spacetime, referred to here as dimensionality, and the lower energy density regions caused within matter caused by the destructive interference.

Spacetime is composed of highly elastic, highly dimensional, sub-plank-sized particles, whose size or dimensionality, the number of dimensions with open apertures, is inversely related to their local energy density. In other words, the open apertures of a spacetime particle, close in sequence, like a cascade, from the highest to the lowest dimension as energy density increases to its extrema - a mass approaching the speed of light.

Superconductivity is one of many higher-dimensional effects of dimensionality. It occurs at and below a specific energy density when the aperture of the dimension that allows the quantum entanglement of electrons is open. Factors such as temperature and destructive interference are critical in achieving that critical energy density.

Keywords

General Relativity; String Theory; Einstein; Hooke’s Law; Lorentz Factor; quantum mechanics, superconductor engineering; mass; gravity; dimensionality; spacetime; quantum entanglement, cooper pair; energy density; singularity; manifold; time dilation; phonon; destructive interference; aether.

I.  Introduction

Early in the 18th century, astronomers were focused on an anomaly in Mercury’s orbit that did not agree with predictions made by “Newton’s Law of Universal Gravity.” The consensus was that an unknown mass, orbiting inside the orbit of Mercury, caused the deviation. However, this gravitational anomaly showed Einstein that there was more to the mystery of gravity, leading to his seminal work - the “Special Theory of Relativity.” [18, 19]

Einstein’s insight proved the “consensus,” made without sufficient facts, was wrong.

Today, gravitational anomalies, such as the rotational velocity of galaxies, are seen as an indication that the universe is filled, literally dominated, with some form of invisible matter. 

Dark matter and energy, as well as the mythical mass once thought to be orbiting near Mercury, are a symptom of mankind's innate resistance to see beyond what they believe as fact. [23]

Humanity, more often than not, sees exactly what they want to see based on what they know and understand. The rest of what we perceive, regardless of its relevance, is routinely discarded by the mind.

These modern gravitational anomalies show us that there is more to understand regarding the mystery of spacetime and gravity.

At quantum mechanical scales, energy manifests itself as discrete packets of energy called quanta, and it should be apparent to the observer that spacetime is no exception. [22]

Einstein described spacetime as a 4-dimensional elastic fabric with 3 spacial dimensions and 1-time dimension, however, his healthy skepticism of quantum mechanics limited his ability to see that the universe is composed of highly dimensional sub-plank-sized particles. This sea, similar to history’s elusive aether, of elastic highly dimensional particles of spacetime with more than 3 spacial dimensions and possibly more than 1-time dimension, like a child’s ball pit, whose size or dimensionality, the number of open apertures of the dimensions, is inversely related to the energy density of local space. [24]

This dimensionality, acting like Einstein’s elegant curved fabric of spacetime, is the framework that will unify large and small scales. It is also the cause, coupled with phonon destructive interference, varying the energy density of space within matter, for superconductivity.

II.  Einstein's Accelerating Rocket and Dimensionality

To illustrate the relationship between the energy density of space and dimensionality, we have to reimagine Einstein’s insightful “accelerating rocket thought experiment.” 

While we can not see a dimension, we can observe the behavior of phenomena associated with dimensionality, such as time dilation, as the rocket accelerates, and infer the behavior of spacetime.

We find an inverse relationship between the energy density of space and the number of dimensions with open apertures, closing from the highest to the lowest dimension.

In 1905, Albert Einstein published the “Special Theory of Relativity.” [1] He realized the speed of light in a vacuum was constant regardless of the perspective of the observer, and as the energy density of space increased, in this case due to the increased velocity of a mass, space contracts and time dilates.

Before we begin our journey on Einstein’s famed accelerating rocket, let us first examine the well-known extrema conditions of the acceleration.

At the highest possible local energy density, as the rocket approaches the speed of light, the apertures of dimensionality are all closed or closing, time no longer propagates, matter vanishes, and space-time as we know it, ceases to exist becomes a singularity, 

At the opposite end of the spectrum, with the rocket at rest, not in the proximity of another gravitational field, with no relative motion, and at absolute 0, the inverse condition exists. The apertures of the many dimensions of dimensionality are as open as possible.

The lowest possible energy density in the universe, and this is significant, is a highly dimensional quantum of spacetime with, most likely, more than 10 dimensions with open apertures. 

In other words, at the lowest possible energy density, spacetime is the most connective with the highest dimensionality, and at the highest energy density dimensionality is at its minimum or a singularity.

Spacetime, dimensionality, is an elastic body.

We should also be aware that it is a paradox that the 4-dimensional Lorentz factor, which maps total energy vs. time dilation, is depicted as a sharp tangential curve, and does not conform to Hooke's Law which governs the behavior of an elastic body.

The Lorentz Factor represents the shadow of the energy that closes the many apertures of dimensionality - mapped on 4-dimensional space. Any solution to the dimensionality puzzle needs to allow both Hooke’s Law, in many dimensions, and the Lorentz Factor, in 4 dimensions, to be true for the dilation of spacetime. [20, 21]

As we begin our journey, the first higher-dimensional effect we can readily observe is superconductivity.

Superconductivity is a state in which electrical resistance drops to 0, and a magnetic field is reflected off the surface of a mass when the temperature drops below a critical temperature. This almost magical phenomenon of 0 resistance is caused by the formation of entangled pairs of fundamental particles, in this case, electron pairs. [2, 3, 4, 31] This spooky attraction of two negatively charged particles allows the conservation of such properties as momentum.

However, this seemingly delicate attraction between paired negatively charged particles, known as cooper pairs, can easily be overcome by an increase in energy density, such as small thermal vibrations.

It is not a coincidence that the lower the energy density, in this case lower temperature, the more substances exhibit superconductivity.

There must be a specific energy density in which the aperture of the dimension that allows the quantum entanglement of electrons opens and closes like a switch. The variation seen in critical temperature between different atomic structures infers that each compound or element has a unique background energy density, when coupled with the lower local energy density caused by destructive interference, this lower energy contributes to the equation that derives critical temperature.

The next benchmark that infers the behavior of dimensionality as energy increases, can be found in the Lorentz Factor. Below 60% of the speed of light, we can see the tangential curve that represents time dilation in 4-dimensions, exhibits little to no time dilation. This infers that the increasing energy density of Einstein’s accelerating rocket, which is a significant amount of energy, is absorbed by the apertures of the higher dimensions closing from the highest dimensions of spacetime or dimensionality first.

The energy of the accelerating mass is the force, that closes the normally open apertures of each dimension, overcoming their innate spring force. 

As we reach 60% of the speed of light, time begins to dilate. The tangential curve of the Lorentz Factor grows steeper and steeper as more of the apertures of the higher dimensions close, allowing a growing percentage of the energy, from the rocket's acceleration, to go into closing the lowest dimensions - the 4th, 3rd, 2nd, and 1st dimensions.

Finally, as we approach the speed of light, all the apertures of the dimensions of spacetime have closed or are closing and the elastic body of dimensionality collapses into a singularity.

What we perceive as matter vanishes, while mass persists.

As energy density rises, the apertures of dimensionality close in some order from the highest to the lowest dimension.

III.  Mass and Dimensionality

Mass is an intrinsic property of matter, once thought to be related to the size of a body. Thanks to Einstein’s “General Theory of Relativity,” mass is defined as a measure of a body’s inertia, and is directly related to its change in velocity. [6, 33, 34]

Einstein's accelerating rocket thought experiment, when viewed from the perspective of dimensionality, also reveals the true nature of mass.

Energy derived from the acceleration of matter is stored in spacetime as the closed and closing normally open apertures of dimensionality, like a force deforming a spring, giving rise to the phenomena of mass, by definition the curvature of spacetime, and gravitational attraction.

This holds true at the extrema of maximum velocity. 

As Einstein’s rocket approaches the speed of light, all the apertures of each dimension are closed or closing, and dimensionality collapses into a singularity. 

However, as matter vanishes the energy or spring force that is stored in the closed and closing apertures of dimensionality persists and the resulting mass and gravitational attraction remain until the rocket decelerates.

An object's mass is directly related to the dilation of spacetime or dimensionality the body creates.

However, the energy absorbed by the separate closed or closing apertures of dimensionality is not responsible for the manifestation of matter.

IV.  Superconductivity, Dimensionality, and Destructive Interference

Superconductivity is presently defined as a thermodynamic phase allowing the formation of entangled electrons called cooper pairs within a uniform lattice of specific solids. [2, 29]

Temperature is an obvious factor in the formation of cooper pairs, however, lower temperature is the inevitable consequence of lower energy densities and a subsequent higher dimensionality. In other words, higher dimensionality is the state when there are a larger number of dimensions with open apertures than at a higher energy density, such as room temperature. This low temperature, lower energy densities, and higher connectivity to space, higher dimensionality, allow the phenomena of quantum entanglement. 

Within the uniform lattice structure of solid matter, phonon destructive interference causes regions of higher and lower energy densities, similar to the light and dark interference pattern of the well-known double slit experiment. [11] This occurs because phonons interact in such a way that allows them to be classified as bosonic particles exhibiting properties that include constructive and destructive interference. [16]

A superconductor's uniform atomic structure allows destructive interference to create zones or corridors of lower energy density and subsequent higher dimensionality, giving rise to the phenomenon of superconductivity.

There is ample published evidence that infers a relationship between superconductivity and higher dimensionality:

In engineered cuprate superconductors, a superlattice of alternating layers of copper oxides (CuO2) and other metal oxides creates reservoirs or corridors between the layers where quantum entanglement occurs. [12, 27] 

However, this uniform atomic structure creates patterns of higher and lower energy density caused by destructive interference. These zones of lower energy density give rise to higher dimensionality, and at a specific threshold, allow quantum entanglement. 

Pressure-induced superconductivity has increased the number of superconducting elements from 29 at ambient pressure to 52. [13] Most elements and compounds will undergo structural changes as pressure and stress increase. Under stress, the transition temperature of some superconductors will fluctuate up and down. [28]

These anomalies further illustrate that changes in boundary distance and structure in potential superconductors alter the interference pattern of phonons and critical temperature. These zones of lower energy density give rise to higher dimensionality and cooper pair formation.

The Meissner effect is one of the innate properties of a superconductor that has been cooled below the critical temperature. [5] The force repels a magnetic field from the surface of the material and allows a magnet to float over a superconductor. However, this effect is contingent upon the energy density of the external magnetic field. In type 1 superconductors, operating below the critical temperature, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the energy density of the magnetic field rises above a critical threshold. [29] In type 2 superconductors, as energy density rises, mixed regions can form where superconductivity and magnetic fields can exist side by side as long as the current running through the material is not too large. However, the superconductivity will abruptly be destroyed if the energy density of the applied magnetic field and or current rises too high. 

The collapse of the Meissner effect is caused by higher energy density closing more of the apertures of the dimensions of spacetime. This reduced dimensionality, Einstein's slow progression toward a singularity, brings quantum entanglement to an abrupt end like a switch. Quantum entanglement may not, as has been suggested, be a weak bond. Entanglement is dependent on the number of open apertures in elastic spacetime. When the energy density is too high resulting in lower dimensionality, quantum entanglement abruptly ends.

This effect is further illustrated in a paper titled, “Adiabatic Cooper Pair Splitter.” Christian Flindt and his team from Aalto University in Finland found that a time-dependent current could break the entangled bond of a copper pair on demand. [3, 30] The team used a pair of quantum dots on either side of a superconducting strip to draw and split electrons into the quantum dots and through a pair of nanowires. 

The increased energy density of the cooper pair induced by the time-dependent current reduced the dimensionality of the particles, breaking the bond of the entangled electrons. The bond between paired particles can also be easily overcome by a similar increase in their energy density and reduced dimensionality caused by small thermal vibrations.

The critical temperature of a compound depends on the chemical composition of the lattice, however, this occurs because different arrangements of atoms contribute a different total mass, or the amount of background energy, and create unique phonon interference patterns within matter. Therefore, the critical temperature of a substance varies from superconductor to superconductor because the unique lower energy densities caused by destructive interference is added to the lower energy density of reduced temperature to achieve the necessary higher dimensionality required for quantum entanglement of electrons to occur naturally.

The lower energy density of spacetime is directly related to higher dimensionality and a higher connectivity to spacetime.

V.  Conclusion

Professor Chu, et al., at the Houston College of Natural Science and Mathematics pioneered a pressure-quench (PQ) technique and has shown structural changes, including properties like a high transition temperature of a superconductor, can be retained when the applied pressure is removed from the sample. [14]

With a better understanding of the relationship between destructive interference and the effect of low energy densities on dimensionality, higher-temperature superconductors can be engineered.

This emerging science of dimensionality unites large and small scales and makes more exotic phenomena, popularized by science fiction, such as inertial mass reduction, wormholes, and faster-than-light travel a possibility.

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