Russian History Highlights   

Kievan Rus (9th - 13th Centuries)

“Kievan Rus” - the cultural ancestor  Belorussia, Russia and Ukraine.

Domestic Policy: Kievan Rus was a loose federation of city-states under various local princes. There was gradual unification under the rule of Vladimir and Yaroslav, with the development of laws and a centralized religious authority. The adoption of Christianity under Vladimir in 988 strengthened the political and cultural unity. The Kievan Rus' state began to fragment in the 11th century due to internal divisions, including power struggles between princes, and external pressures from nomadic invaders like the Pechenegs and Cumans. In 1157 the cities of Rostov and Suzdal elected Andrew Bogolubski as their prince, and he transferred the capital of the entire principality to Vladimir, which later evolved into the Moscovite Principality. 

Foreign Policy: Kievan Rus was heavily involved in trade, using the strategic "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" to connect Scandinavia, Byzantium, and the Islamic world. The state lived throuhg a mix of alliances and conflicts, especially with neighboring nomadic tribes. Yaroslav formed alliances with Scandinavian countries and other major European powers. He also married his daughters into European royal families.

Economics: Kievan Rus thrived on agriculture and trade, particularly in furs, honey, and wax. The state’s position along key trade routes between the Byzantine Empire and Scandinavia boosted its economy.

Culture:  The introduction of Christianity brought the Cyrillic alphabet and Byzantine art, architecture, and religious practices to the region. The construction of churches and the creation of religious texts became important cultural achievements. 

Key Dates:

• 882: Oleg of Novgorod founded Kievan Rus by uniting Slavic tribes.

• 988: Prince Vladimir I adopts Orthodox Christianity, marking the Christianization of Kievan Rus.

• 1019-1054: Reign of Yaroslav the Wise; codification of "Russkaya Pravda" (Legal code).

• 1054: Death of Yaroslav the Wise; fragmentation of Kievan Rus begins.

• 1147: Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicles as a meeting place of Princes Yury Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olgovich. 

Mongol Rule (1240 - 1480)

Domestic Policy:
Vladimir-Suzdal principality were under Mongol rule and paid heavy tribute. Moscow grew from a small town to a regional power, with Ivan I consolidating control over North-East Russian lands and becoming a tax collector for the Mongols. Eventually, Muscovia Principality emerged as the leading state to challenge Mongol authority.

Foreign Policy:
Under Mongol rule, Russia was subordinated, but Moscow used diplomatic strategies, like alliances and tribute payments, to maintain some autonomy. Resistance began growing in the late 14th century, culminating in the Battle of Kulikovo and in 1480, Moscow declared independence.

Economics:
Russia was economically weakened by the heavy tribute to the Mongols. However, the Mongols protected trade routes, which allowed for the exchange of goods like furs and agricultural products. Moscow benefited from this trade while consolidating control over new territories as it used permission to collect taxes granted by Mongols to its benefit. 

Culture:
Russian culture was shaped by the Orthodox Church, which preserved religious traditions during Mongol domination. The influence of Mongol administration and military practices was notable in Russian governance and military tactics. Andrey Rublev, a Russian iconographer, are key cultural icons from this era. 

Key Dates:

• 1240: Mongols, led by Batu Khan, sacked Kiev, marking the beginning of Mongol domination.

• 1320s: Moscow rises as a main reginal power under Ivan I.

• 1380: Battle of Kulikovo, where Dmitry Donskoy defeats Mongol forces.

• 1480: Ivan III asserts independence from the Mongols after the "Great Stand on the Ugra River."

Tsardom of Moscow (1480 - 1613)

Domestic Policy:
In the 15th century a theological and political concept of Moscow seeing itself as the Third Rome was formulated. It legitimized the Moscow Prince proclaiming himself a supreme ruler (sovereign and legislator) of Christian Eastern Orthodox nations and becoming a defender of the Christian Eastern Orthodox Church.

In the 16th century Ivan IV introduced Oprichnina, a brutal policy that terrorized the nobility. The Time of Troubles followed Ivan IV’s death, was marked by civil unrest and foreign intervention and ended with the establishment of the Romanov dynasty.

Foreign Policy:
Muscovy fought several wars with neighboring states, notably in the Livonian War, but the wars weakened the state and ended in failure. Despite internal instability, Muscovy expanded into Siberia during this time, beginning its imperial expansion.

Economics:
Muscovy remained an agrarian country, with serfdom becoming more entrenched. Economic activity centered around agriculture, but the fur trade in Siberia was getting more significant. The state’s military campaigns and the expansion into new territories also contributed to its economic base.

Culture:
Orthodox Christianity continued to play a central role in cultural life.

Saint Basil's Cathedral was built in 1561 in Moscow, Russia. Legend has it that the main architect of the cathedral was ordered to be made blind so that he would never be able to create a structure more beautiful than this. 

The construction of the Moscow Kremlin featured the work of Italian architects such as Marco Ruffo and Aleviz Novy, blending Italian Renaissance styles with Russian Orthodox traditions. The introduction of the first printing press in Russia in 1564 was another key milestone.

Key Dates:

• 1480: Ivan III asserts independence from the Mongols.

• 1547: Ivan IV (the Terrible) becomes the first Tsar of Russia.

• 1558-1583: Livonian War with Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden.

• 1581: Beginning of the Russian conquest of Siberia.

• 1598-1613: The Time of Troubles, a period of civil war, famine, and foreign intervention. 

Romanov Dynasty (1613 - 1917)

Domestic Policy:
The Romanov dynasty presided over significant centralization of power, with rulers like Peter the Great modernizing Russia through reforms. Alexander II's Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 was a landmark in Russian social history. The monarchy's power began to wane in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the February Revolution of 1917 when the last of Romanov rulers was deposed.

Foreign Policy:
Russia expanded significantly during the Romanov period, engaging in wars with Sweden, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire. The Great Northern War against Sweden (1700-1721) was a major turning point in Russia's rise as a European power. Russia also played a crucial role in the defeat of Napoleon. It later acquired more lands and expanded into Central Asia and Siberia.

Catherine the Great's reign was notable for imperial expansion. She placed utmost importance on securing the northern shore of the Black Sea in 1774. It was followed by the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula (1783), and the expansion into the steppes beyond the Urals and along the Caspian Sea.

Economics:
Russia's economy continued to be largely agricultural for much of the Romanov period, but the industrialization began in the 19th century. The Trans-Siberian Railway was constructed, connecting Russian European heartland to the Pacific Ocean. Despite industrial growth, social inequality and peasant unrest persisted.

Culture:
The cultural life of Russia flourished during the Romanov period, specifically in literature, music, and art. Writers such as Pushkin, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, composers such as Tchaikovsky, and the achievements of Russian ballet and classical music left a lasting legacy on the world culture. The Bolshoi Ballet and the works of Anton Chekhov were especially influential.

Key Dates:

• 1613: Mikhail Romanov is crowned, launching the reign of the Romanov dynasty.

• 1700-1721: Great Northern War against Sweden; Russia emerges as a European power.

• 1703: Peter the Great founded St. Petersburg .

• 1861: Emancipation of the serfs under Alexander II.

• 1905: Revolution of 1905 leads to the creation of the Duma (Russian Parliament).

• 1917: February Revolution results in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. 

Soviet Era (1917 - 1991)

Domestic Policy:
The Soviet Union governance was marked by totalitarian rule, first under Lenin, then under Stalin, who initiated large-scale purges. The Cold War saw a militarized and ideologically driven society, followed by attempts at reform under Gorbachev with Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring). The Soviet system collapsed in 1991 due to economic failure and political instability.

Foreign Policy:
Soviet foreign policy focused on spreading communism and protecting the country from external threats. After World War II, when the Soviet Union played a huge role in defeating Nazi Germany, the USSR shifted to building influence over Eastern Europe and clashing with the West in the Cold War. They backed communist movements and regimes around the world, especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In the end, though, their aggressive foreign policy, combined with the strain from military involvement, contributed to the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991.

Economy:
The Soviet economy was centrally planned with large state-run industries. Early on, the USSR saw rapid industrialization, but by the 1970s, the economy stagnated due to inefficiency and bureaucratic control. The collapse of the USSR in 1991 was partly caused by economic mismanagement.

Culture:
Soviet culture was heavily influenced by state propaganda, with "socialist realism" dominating the arts. Despite censorship, Soviet culture produced significant contributions, particularly in literature, music, and space exploration. Writers like Solzhenitsyn, composers like Shostakovich, and the success of the Soviet space program left a lasting legacy.

Key Dates:

• 1917: October Revolution.

• 1922: Formation of the Soviet Union.

• 1936-1938: Great Terror.

• 1941-1945: Great Patriotic War (Part of the WWII); Soviet victory over Nazi Germany.

• 1947-1991: Cold War.

• 1957: Launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite. Gagarin's flight was in 1961.

• 1979-1989: Soviet-Afghan War.

• 1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall and the decline of Soviet influence.

• 1991: Dissolution of the Soviet Union; creation of the Russian Federation. 

Post-Soviet Russia (1991 - Present)

Domestic Policy:
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia transitioned from a communist regime to a market economy and a more democratic political system. However, political power has remained highly centralized under Vladimir Putin, who became president in 2000. The country has experienced periods of economic instability. However, under Putin,  Russia has regained growing prominence on the world stage. The state has also participated in key military actions, including the Crimean War and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.

Foreign Policy:
Russia has emerged as key military campaigns including the take over Crimea in 2014 and involvement in the Syrian Civil War have showcased Russia’s growing influence on the world stage.

Economics:
While the economy faced challenges in the 1990s, especially during the 1998 financial crisis, it stabilized and grew during the 2000s. Russia’s energy exports, particularly oil and gas, have been a major factor in its economic resurgence.

Culture:
Post-Soviet Russia has witnessed a cultural renaissance, with new literature, film, and music exploring a more diverse array of themes. Key cultural figures include the writers Vladimir Sorokin and Lyudmila Ulitskaya, and filmmakers like Andrei Zvyagintsev. The Bolshoi Ballet and Russian classical music continue to thrive globally.

Key Dates:

• 1991: Dissolution of the Soviet Union; creation of the Russian Federation.

• 2000: Vladimir Putin becomes President of Russia.

• 2014: Annexation of Crimea.

• 2022 - present: War with Ukraine. 

East Slavs 

Researchers don’t know much about the Eastern Slavs before around 859 AD, when events from their history first started being written down in the Primary Chronicle. The Eastern Slavs didn’t have a written language back then, so what we know about them so our knowledge is largely based on archeological  findings, accounts of foreign travelers, and comparative linguistics.

Very few written records from the Rus’ people before the 11th century have survived. The Primary Chronicle, dating from the late 11th century, is the earliest major source we have. It lists twelve Slavic tribes that, by the 10th century, were settled in the area that would later become Kievan Rus.

The origin of the Slavs is still debated among scholars, but by the first millennium, Slavic groups were mixing with different tribes moving across Eastern Europe. By around 600 AD, the Slavs had split into three groups: eastern, western, and southern. The Eastern Slavs practiced slash-and-burn farming, clearing forest areas with fire and then moving on after a few years when the the soils would deplete.

In two big migration waves, the Eastern Slavs spread across Eastern Europe. Some settled around the Dnieper River in today’s Ukraine and Belarus, while others moved northeast, eventually encountering the Varangians and forming important centers like Novgorod.

Very few written records from the Rus’ people before the 11th century have survived. The Primary Chronicle, dating from the late 11th century, is the earliest major source we have. It lists twelve Slavic tribes that, by the 10th century, were settled in the area that would later become Kievan Rus.