Lauria and Ribeiro-Oliveira Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2016) 2:14 DOI 10.1186/s40842-016-0032-x
R E V I E W A R T I C L E Open Access
Diabetes and other endocrine-metabolic abnormalities in the long-term follow-up of pancreas transplantation
Marcio W Lauria and Antonio Ribeiro-Oliveira Jr*
Abstract
Pancreas transplantation (PTX) has been demonstrated to restore long-term glucose homeostasis beyond what can be achieved by intensive insulin therapy or islet transplants. Moreover, PTX has been shown to decrease the progression of the chronic complications of diabetes. However, PTX patients require chronic use of immunosuppressive drugs with potential side effects. The long-term follow-up of PTX patients demands special care regarding metabolic deviations, infectious complications, and chronic rejection. Diabetes and other endocrine metabolic abnormalities following transplantation are common and can increase morbidity and mortality. Previous recipient-related and donor-related factors, as well as other aspects inherent to the transplant, act together in the pathogenesis of those abnormalities. Early recognition of these disturbances is the key to timely treatment; however, adequate tools to achieve this goal are often lacking. In a way, the type of PTX procedure, whether simultaneous pancreas kidney or not, seems to differentially influence the evolution of endocrine and metabolic abnormalities. Further studies are needed to define the best approach for PTX patients. This review will focus on the most common endocrine metabolic disorders seen in the long-term management of PTX: diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and bone loss. The authors here cover each one of these endocrine topics by showing the evaluation as well as proper management in the follow-up after PTX.
Keywords: Pancreas transplantation, Diabetes, Hyperlipidemia, Bone loss
Background
During the past decades, pancreas transplantation (PTX) has evolved into a procedure mainly reserved for type 1 diabetes patients undergoing simultaneously kidney transplantation, although it has also been performed as an isolate procedure [1]. Importantly, it has significantly improved diabetes related quality of life as well as life expectancy when compared to kidney only recipients
[2]. However, there is a paucity of publications as related to the endocrine follow-up evaluation and management to this population of diabetic patients after pancreas transplantation.
A Pubmed search was conducted searching for terms “pancreas transplantation AND metabolism”, “pancreas transplantation AND diabetes”, “pancreas transplant-
ation AND hyperlipidemia”, “pancreas transplantation
* Correspondence: antoniorojr@gmail.com
Department of Internal Medicine (Endocrinology section and Transplantation unit), Federal University of Minas Gerais, Rua Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
AND bone disease”. We have included only English writ-ten articles, and we have tried to prioritize prospective studies. However, due to the lack of available data con-cerning pancreas transplantation and metabolic abnor-malities, we have also included retrospective, transversal and case reports studies.
Main text
PTX is the implantation of a healthy pancreas (usually from a deceased donor) into a patient who typically has type 1 diabetes. More than 35,000 PTXs have been re-ported worldwide [3]. Eighty-four percent of PTX proce-dures are performed along with kidney transplantation (both organs coming from the same donor) in diabetic patients with renal failure. This is referred to as simul-taneous pancreas-kidney (SPK) transplantation. Nine percent of PTXs are performed after a previous success-ful kidney transplantation, which is termed pancreas-after-kidney transplantation (PAK). The remaining 7 % of cases are performed as pancreas transplantation alone
© 2016 The Author(s). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Lauria and Ribeiro-Oliveira Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2016) 2:14 Page 2 of 9
(PTA) in nonuremic patients with very labile difficult to manage diabetes.
The number of US PTX has declined by over 20 %, while the overall number of pancreas transplants per-formed outside the US has increased since 2010. The de-cline in US numbers is predominantly due to the decline in PTA and PAK. With the decline in the number of transplants, a change towards better pancreas donor se-lection has been observed [3]. Furthermore, the number of PTX in patients with type 2 diabetes and end-stage renal disease has increased, and accounted for 9 % of all SPK recipients in 2010–14 [3].
Pancreas transplantation is superior to intensive insu-lin therapy with respect to glycated hemoglobin (A1C) normalization and shows the additional physiological property of proinsulin and C-peptide release [4]. With new advances in immunosuppression and changes in surgical techniques, patient survival and pancreas graft function have been improving, with PTX being widely employed as a treatment modality for patients with dia-betes,especially those with established nephropathy [1, 3]. Nevertheless, PTX remains a complex procedure, which is still associated with high general surgical mor-bidity. In addition, graft failure, side effects of immuno-suppressive agents, opportunistic infections, and cardio-and cerebrovascular problems can increase morbidity and mortality following transplantation [1, 5, 6].
Diabetes and other metabolic abnormalities have fre-quently been observed after PTX, which can influence its long-term outcomes. These disorders have been re-lated to various factors such as immunosuppressive drug side effects, chronic rejection, and recipient lifestyle after transplantation. Early recognition of these abnormalities can provide for more opportune treatment [1, 4, 5].
This review will focus on the most common endocrine and metabolic disorders related to PTX, such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and bone loss. It is noteworthy to mention that due to the absence of clinical guidelines developed through the GRADE approach to this population, our sug-gested evaluation and follow-up may eventually show vari-ations from other centers, although we have tried to summarize them through the best available sources.
Diabetes after pancreas transplantation
Glucose metabolism disorders
No other insulin delivery regimen can achieve the level of physiologic glycemic regulation than that obtained with PTX. It has proved more effective in lowering A1C than intensive insulin treatment or islet trans-plants [1, 5–7]. Restoration of β‑cell secretory capacity, improvement in glucose counter-regulation, and return to hypoglycemia awareness can all be achieved with a successful PTX [8]. Normalization of A1C occurs within weeks to months and can last for more than
15 years [9]. Transient hyperglycemia may occur within the first six months due to acute or chronic rejection, pan-creatitis, or a marked increase in insulin resistance due to weight gain. Immunosuppressant medication effects [5, 6], such as steroids, calcineurin inhibitors (tacrolimus, in par-ticular), sirolimus, and mycophenolate have also been linked to posttransplantation hyperglycemia [10].
Hypoglycemia may also occur following PTX [11, 12]; however, severe episodes (with or without symptom awareness) are rare. By 3 months after PTX, gluca-gon secretion and hepatic glucose production in re-sponse to hypoglycemia also return to normal [13]. Although epinephrine and growth hormone responses to hypoglycemia improve after pancreas transplant, these do not return to normal [14].
Hyperinsulinism is frequently observed after PTX, as are elevated C-peptide and proinsulin concentrations. One likely explanation for these abnormalities—among other reasons, such as the side effects of immunosup-pression—is the systemic release of insulin via the iliac vein, as there is no first-pass effect of insulin through the liver [15]. It has been reported that drainage of the venous effluent of the pancreas transplant via the super-ior mesenteric or portal vein (portal venous drainage) al-lows comparable blood glucose control but lower insulin levels, as well as possible advantages in metabolic con-trol over systemic venous drainage. However, this mech-anism has not been accepted by all authors [16, 17]. Interestingly, a recent report [18] in SPK patients at 1 and 5 years posttransplantation showed that peripheral insulin resistance with homeostatic model assessment (HOMA-IR) >4 was related to decreased pancreatic graft survival. However, data from HOMA-IR in transplanted patients is lacking and needs to be interpreted cautiously.
The prevalence of diabetes after pancreas transplant-ation is variable, depending on the frequency of assess-ment, duration of follow-up, and, most importantly, the case definition for diabetes or glucose intolerance. The estimates of this prevalence is rather imprecise as some have taken insulin use as the definition for diabetes while others excluded technical failures or acute rejec-tion to this assessment.
Hyperglycemia after PTX may have more than one of the following explanations: graft failure (due to rejection, thrombosis, or pancreatitis), new-onset diabetes (type 2 or secondary to corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs), immunosuppressant-induced islet cell toxicity (particularly tacrolimus in high doses), or recurrent autoimmune type 1 diabetes [19].
Interestingly, the recurrence of type 1 diabetes has been related to the presence of the autoantibodies to the zinc transporter 8 and cannot be explained by genetically encoded amino acid sequence donor-recipient mis-matches for this autoantigen [20].
• Donor: older age and high body mass index
• Surgical procedure: extensive manipulation of the graft and long ischemic period
• Recipient: higher body mass index and posttransplant weight gain; donor age, hepatitis C virus and donor-positive with recipient-negative CMV status
• Type of pancreas transplantation: pancreas transplantation alone and pancreas after kidney transplantation
• Immunosuppressive regimen: prolonged use of glucocorticoids and use of tacrolimus
• Follow-up: number of acute rejection episodes, loss of the kidney graft in pancreas-kidney transplantation, and long duration of the transplant
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Most cases of late hyperglycemia are attributed to There are no specific criteria to diagnose diabetes
chronic rejection, which, along with technical failure, is after pancreas transplantation and so it is recom-
the most common cause of hyperglycemia following mended to adopt the Second International Consensus
PTX. Chronic rejection accounts for approximately 50 % of Post -Transplant Diabetes Mellitus [28]. The thresh-
(or more) of the grafts that survive over five years [21].
old to define diabetes is based on data from non-
Pancreas failure in the long term can be related to the transplant patients: fasting glucose ≥ 126 mg/dl on
donor, to the surgical manipulation of the graft, or to more than one occasion, random glucose ≥200 mg/dl
the recipient (Table 1).
with symptoms or a 2-h glucose level after a 75-g oral
Neidlinger et al. [22] analyzed 674 PTX recipients over
glucose tolerance test ≥200 mg/dl [27]. Although
a 10-year period, with mean follow-up of more than A1C ≥ 6.5 % can be used to diagnose diabetes in the
6 years. The incidence of posttransplant diabetes melli- general population, it should not be used alone in post-
tus (PTDM) was 14 % and 25 % at 3 and 10 years after transplant diabetes mellitus, particularly in the first
PTX, respectively. Higher recipient body mass index and year after transplantation [28].
posttransplant weight gain, donor age, and donor- Pancreas transplantation recipients presenting with re-
positive with recipient-negative CMV status were associ- current hyperglycemia should have their C-peptide levels
ated with PTDM after controlling for possible confound- measured and undergo pancreas biopsy to distinguish
ing factors [22]. Dean et al. also found a relationship
between rejection, recurrence of type 1 diabetes, and on-
between PTDM, high pretransplant insulin requirements set of type 2 diabetes [4]. Duplex sonographic scanning
and episodes of acute rejection [6]. Hilling et al. demon-
of the allograft could be helpful in excluding thrombosis
strated that recipient factors are more important in and rejection. However, sonography is less accurate than
explaining differences in pancreas graft survival than biopsy to diagnose rejection [29, 30]. Ultrasound-guided
donor factors [23]. Interestingly, the incidence of post-
pancreas biopsy is otherwise considered the gold stand-
transplant diabetes after successful PTX is lower than ard for the diagnosis of an allograft dysfunction.
that for other solid organ transplants despite the use of Unfortunately, hyperglycemia is a late marker of chronic
the same immunosuppressive drugs [24].
graft rejection. Although plasma glucose has high specifi-
Both PAK and PTA entail higher incidence of graft city (90 % to 95 %), it is the least sensitive marker of rejec-
loss from chronic rejection compared with SPK [3]. For
tion [31]. Hence, identification of the subjects at risk of
the PAK and PTA categories, such risk remains high returning to the diabetic state due to graft loss or any
even after 1 year posttransplantation, thus requiring other cause is difficult and often delayed. Consequently,
greater doses of immunosuppressive drugs and increas- appropriate treatment becomes unfeasible.
ing toxicity risks [25]. In one study developed by our
Several tests have been proposed to identify patients at
group comparing long-term follow-up between PTA and high risk for all-cause pancreatic graft failure. Slight al-
SPK patients, we showed that PTA patients exhibited terations in glucose metabolism seem to appear earlier
higher tacrolimus levels and worse renal function [26].
and might be predictive of pancreatic graft failure.
Pfeffer et al. performed OGTT 1.7 years after SPK
Evaluation transplantation on average and showed that impaired
Fasting glucose and A1C should be ordered at all con- glucose tolerance predicted risk of graft failure in
sultations. If A1C is elevated or fasting glucose exceeds 10 years [32]. Battezzati et al., taking blood samples at
100 mg/dl, unassociated with a recent rejection episode, 2 h intervals for plasma glucose, serum insulin, and C-
an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) should be per- peptide levels, reported that mean 24-h glucose greater
formed [27].
than 127 mg/dL at 1 year posttransplantation was the
best predictive index of return to a diabetic state [33].
Table 1 Related risk factors for diabetes mellitus following The intravenous glucose tolerance test and the arginine-
induced insulin secretion test have also been used as
pancreas transplantation
rejection markers [34, 35]. In islet transplantation pa-tients, glucose variability and a higher frequency of glucose levels above 140 mg/dL determined by the continuous glucose monitoring system (CGMS) have proved useful early indicators of graft dysfunction [36]. We have also demonstrated that 72 h mean glucose measured by CGMS in PTX patients with normal oral glucose tolerance was associated with chronic rejection in a 5 year follow-up [37]. Recently, Hiratsuka et al. have described the utility of peripheral plasma fasting
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serum C-peptide response to 1 mg of glucagon intra-venously to predict insulin-free treatment [38]. How-ever, further studies are warranted, since biochemical parameters and imaging tools still lack diagnostic ac-curacy to detect early graft failure, especially for PTA and PAK.
In SPK recipients, serum creatinine levels have been used to diagnose rejection, since kidney graft rejection usually precedes or is concurrent with rejection of the pancreas graft [19].
Urinary amylase levels can be monitored in pancreas recipients with bladder-drained exocrine secretions [39, 40]. An analysis result of a 12-h or 24-h urine col-lection in which amylase levels have declined 50 % or more from baseline suggests rejection or pancreatitis. Serum amylase and lipase levels provide additional means for following pancreas function, especially in the case of enterically drained grafts. However, they lack the sensitivity and specificity of urinary amylase measures [4]. Long-term graft survival is greater for SPK vs PAK or PTA transplants, which partly explains the decrease in the number of these two last transplant modalities in the past decade [41]. Indeed, in SPK the pancreas and kidney are usually obtained from the same deceased donor and, therefore, changes in kidney function can be used to monitor whether rejection is occurring at either organ.
Table 2 summarizes the recommended tests for identi-fying patients at risk for pancreatic graft dysfunction.
Management
Strict glycemic control is the cornerstone of therapy, which can preserve residual β-cell function and eventu-ally recover it when glucotoxicity is corrected. Blood glucose levels should be less than 110 mg/dL before meals and less than 180 mg/dL postprandial [42].
Insulin therapy is generally preferred because of its su-perior results in controlling diabetes, in addition to be-ing more predictable and rapidly titrated. Insulin therapy is mandatory in the setting of ketoacidosis or metabolic decompensation with unintended weight loss. Further-more, insulin should be used when hyperglycemia de-rives from rejection or other causes of graft failure. Further, insulin therapy is mandatory when hypergly-cemia derives from rejection or other causes of graft
failure. Despite extensive clinical experience with a var-iety of insulin types, no prospective studies have ad-dressed the relative efficacy of specific insulin regimens for treating posttransplant diabetes [42].
When the cause of hyperglycemia is new-onset type 2 diabetes, oral agents can be used, although this has not been clearly defined for PTX. They should be attempted in patients with mild hyperglycemia with preserved/ro-bust c-peptide. Metformin improves insulin sensitivity, most notably in the liver. Given the risk of metformin-induced lactic acidosis, this agent is contraindicated for patients with severe renal or hepatic dysfunction. Sulfo-nylureas stimulate insulin secretion and can be an op-tion. However, these drugs are associated with an increased risk of hypoglycemia and can also contribute to β-cell exhaustion. Thiazolidinediones, which primarily target insulin resistance at the level of skeletal muscles and adipocytes, have been evaluated as a potential thera-peutic option and seem to be a safe and effective treat-ment. Special attention must be given to the side effects of thiazolidinediones, such as weight gain, hepatotox-icity, edema, cardiac failure, and increased fracture risk. Agonists of GLP-1 and oral dipeptidyl peptidase inhibi-tors have not been consistently investigated and thus cannot be recommended, although they might have a positive effect by stimulating insulin secretion in trans-plant recipients [43].
Although current clinical evidence is largely anec-dotal, tailoring of immunosuppression should be con-sidered in patients with poorly controlled diabetes despite therapeutic lifestyle changes and pharmacologic interventions. In this context, therapeutic options in-clude reduction in corticosteroid and/or calcineurin in-hibitors dose, and conversion from tacrolimus to cyclosporine or sirolimus [44, 45].
Steroid avoidance or withdrawal for PTX patients has been a matter of debate. A recent review by Montero et al. [46] concluded that the available data, including randomized controlled trials, are still insufficient to firmly infer on the harms and benefits of steroid with-drawal in pancreas transplantation. A study by Amodu et al. [47] showed that steroid maintenance is not associ-ated with the risk of death or graft failure although increasing the risk of infectious complications.
Table 2 Tests for identifying pancreas graft dysfunction
• Urinary amylase levels (only for bladder- drained transplants)
• Serum amylase and lipase levels
• Fasting glucose levels (consider OGTT if >100 mg/dl)
• A1C
• Creatinine (in SPK patients)
• Duplex sonographic scanning of the allograft (when thrombosis and/or rejection are suspected)
• Ultrasound- guided biopsy (gold standard for rejection)
Hyperlipidemia after pancreas transplantation
Lipid metabolism disorders
Hyperlipidemia after solid organ transplantation occurs in 60 % to 80 % of recipients of immunosuppressive therapy
[48]. High triglycerides and low density lipoprotein choles-terol (LDL-c) levels are two of the most important lipid disorders found in those patients. Combined hyperlipid-emia is also common. Many risk factors can contribute to the development of dyslipidemia after PTX, such as older
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age, obesity, posttransplantation weight gain, pretrans-plantation hyperlipidemia, male gender, graft dysfunction, proteinuria, new-onset diabetes, prednisone dosage, and the type of immunosuppression regimen (Table 3).
Sirolimus has been found to be associated with greater increases in triglycerides and cholesterol, although tacro-limus and cyclosporine also have deleterious effects on lipid metabolism [5, 10].
The majority of PTX patients have preexisting dys-lipidemia, since they are generally poorly controlled diabetes patients, most of them with advanced ne-phropathy. Compared to preoperative levels, patients who underwent SPK experience improvements in their lipid profile, while those submitted to PTA remain with stable lipid levels [49]. Patients who underwent PTA exhibit similar lipid levels to SPK patients post-transplantation, which suggests that the contrasting clinical course seen between these two groups is attrib-utable to preoperative lipid profile differences [26]. Relative to PTA patients, SPK patients have signifi-cantly lower levels of LDL-c and use significantly fewer lipid-lowering medications [50]. Portal venous instead of systemic venous drainage of the pancreas allograft does not seem to impact lipid metabolism in the long-term follow-up [17]. Steroid withdrawal regimens have been related to lower prevalence of hyperlipidemia after PTX [51].
Qualitatively, a persisting profile of potentially athero-genic alterations in lipoprotein lipase, cholesteryl ester transfer, and lipoprotein composition has been reported after PTX [52]. However, the findings and interpretation of those data have been questioned by others [53].
Evaluation
In the first 3 months following PTX, lipid levels are quite unstable because of high doses of immunosuppres-sive drugs [54]. After that, levels usually stabilize during the first year posttransplantation. It is important to avoid misleading situations when interpreting the results, such as acute stress conditions and secondary causes of dyslipidemia.
Table 3 Risk factors contributing to the development of dyslipidemia following pancreas transplantation
• Older age
• Obesity/Overweight
• Weight gain after transplantation
• Pretransplantation hyperlipidemia
• Male gender
• Graft dysfunction
• Proteinuria
• New-onset diabetes
• Prednisone dosage
• Immunosuppressive agents: sirolimus (particularly), tacrolimus, cyclosporine
Monitoring lipid profile at least every 6 months fol-lowing transplantation is advisable.
Management
Due to the high incidence of atherosclerotic disease events and the absence of specific studies, PTX patients should be considered high risk and treated to maintain LDL-c <100 mg/dl, according to published guidelines for kidney transplant patients [55].
A diet-oriented approach should be the first line treat-ment in hyperlipidemia [56]; changes in the immunosup-pression regimen should also be considered. Tacrolimus appears to have fewer adverse effects on lipids than cyclo-sporine, which is not explained by concomitant steroid ad-ministration. Cross-over studies with renal transplant patients have shown improvement in lipid profile after conversion from cyclosporine to tacrolimus [57, 58].
Statins are considered the cornerstone of drug ther-apy in posttransplantation hypercholesterolemia. The outcomes and benefits of statins based on heart and kidney clinical studies provide a solid rationale to sup-port their use in organ transplantation. Furthermore, statins can potentially exert cholesterol-independent immunosuppressive effects [59]. Use of statins in PTA patients may lead to improved outcomes. Whether this is due to cardiovascular protection or other factors un-related to lipid lowering remains unclear [60].
Similarly to kidney transplant, statin treatment has un-certain effects on overall mortality, stroke, kidney func-tion, and toxicity outcomes in PTX recipients. Further studies would improve our knowledge of the benefits and harms of statin treatment regarding cardiovascular events in this clinical setting [61].
Since statins can cause hepatotoxicity, it is important to monitor liver function after statin introduction. More-over, we should be cautious about the myotoxic effects of statins and the risk of rhabdomyolysis due to inter-action with drugs that inhibit the cytochrome P450 iso-enzyme and thus increase statin levels [62]. Regarding associations between statins and tacrolimus, animal studies have shown a pronounced interaction, similar to that described for cyclosporine. Not all statins are metabolized by the same enzyme; therefore, they ex-hibit a different drug interaction and safety profile [63]. Statin-induced dysglycemia is another concern that has recently been described in kidney transplants [64]. The choice of a statin should be based on individual patient requirements and adapted according to treatment re-sponse. Pravastatin and fluvastatin have been consid-ered the safest statins to be used in transplanted patients [65]. However, given their low potency, a high-potency statin may be necessary in patients with signifi-cant dyslipidemia [66, 67].
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Concerning hypertriglyceridemia, fibrates should be used cautiously, since they may induce renal dysfunction. Gemfibrozil seems to be devoid of this side-effect [68]. Interestingly, in the Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD), fenofibrate reduced albu-minuria and slowed estimated renal function loss over 5 years, despite initially and reversibly increasing plasma creatinine. Confirmatory studies are merited [69].
Bone diseases following pancreas transplantation
Calcium and bone metabolism disorders
Bone complications are another major source of late morbidity for PTX patients. Fractures after SPK trans-plant are common: 45 to 49 % within the first 2 years, which is one of the highest fracture rates reported for any organ transplant [70]. Cortical osteoporosis is prevalent in SPK recipients at the time of transplant-ation and shows early progression after transplantation
[71]. Over the long term, bone densitometry values and fracture risk seem to stabilize or improve, especially in steroid sparing protocols and/or aggressive osteoporosis treatment [71, 72].
The disturbances in bone and mineral metabolism ob-served after transplantation are largely determined by preexisting factors at the time of transplantation (ad-vanced age, female gender, long duration of pretrans-plant kidney failure, history of pretransplant fracture) and by factors inherent to the transplant status, such as kidney function and use of immunosuppressive agents [73, 74] (Table 4).
Compared to PTA recipients, kidney transplant recipi-ents have the disadvantage of presenting for transplant-ation with preexisting osteodystrophy, which is difficult to predict from routine laboratory or radiologic investiga-tions and it may persist, improve, or worsen after trans-plantation [75]. Interestingly, SPK has been associated with a significant 31 % reduction in fracture risk com-pared to kidney alone transplantation in men with type 1 diabetes after adjustment for fracture covariates [76]. It is not known whether the apparent benefit of SPK is due to improved bone strength or fewer falls observed with the restoration of euglycemia. Furthermore, a recent study by Rocha et al. [77] showed that, in SPK patients followed for at about 3 years, a gain in BMI was significantly predictive
Table 4 Factors related to bone and mineral metabolism disturbances following pancreas transplantation
• Preexisting: older age, female gender, long duration of pretransplant kidney failure, history of pretransplant fracture, severity of hyperparathyroidism secondary to kidney disease
• Inherent to transplant status: kidney function, use of immunosuppressive agents (especially glucocorticoids and calcineurin inhibitors)
• Other factors commonly observed after transplantation: hypogonadism, vitamin D deficiency, persistent parathyroid disease, thyroid abnormalities
of bone mass improvement whereas an increasing in serum levels of alkaline phosphatase was significantly associated with a decrease in the same parameter.
After kidney transplantation, many laboratory features of chronic kidney disease improve; however, abnormally high or low bone turnover rates have been reported in bone biopsy studies [78, 79].
Corticosteroids exacerbate bone loss by suppressing osteoblastic activity and activating osteoclastic resorp-tion. Calcineurin inhibitors also have direct negative ef-fects on bone [80–82]. Factors such as hypogonadism, vitamin D deficiency, adynamic bone disease, previous or ongoing parathyroid disease, previous uncontrolled diabetes, and thyroid function abnormalities can also contribute to bone loss [19]. Persistently increased PTH concentrations can be found in as many as 75 % of pa-tients at 1 year posttransplantation; this is largely due to failure of the enlarged glands to involute. Elevated FGF23 levels and decreased Klotho expression in the parathyroid gland may play a role in the pathogenesis of hyperparathyroidism after kidney transplantation [83]. A major determinant of persistent posttransplant hyper-parathyroidism is its severity at the time of transplant-ation, corresponding to pretransplantation PTH levels [84, 85]. Persistent hyperparathyroidism is a major risk factor for fractures after kidney transplantation [86]. The foot and ankle are the most common fracture sites after PTX, accounting for over 50 % of the cases. This sug-gests that preexisting diabetes-related deformities could be an etiologic factor. Charcot neuroarthropathy has been diagnosed in 4.6 % of SPK recipients during the first year posttransplantation [87, 88]. In addition, a var-iety of other anatomic sites are affected [89].
Evaluation
No clinical trial data to inform clinical recommenda-tions for bone disease in PTX patients are available. Most data is limited to before-after data or registry studies. In view of this, guidance for renal transplant-ation patients is taken as a reference, although it needs to be applied cautiously [55].
Close monitoring of serum calcium, phosphate, 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25 OH-D), and PTH concentrations are recommended for SPK and PAK recipients [19]. Bone mineral density should be measured in the first 3 months after transplantation, when patients have a cal-culated clearance of creatinine above 30 mL/min, and then repeated on a regular basis [55]. The work-up should also include periodical determination of thyroid and sex hormone status in eligible populations [4]. Bio-markers of bone turnover could be useful in individual-izing therapy to prevent or treat bone loss after transplantation [90]. For PTA recipients, evaluation should be done considering the presence of other
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fracture risk factors such as peripheral neuropathy, poor muscle strength, balance impairment, visual acuity re-duction, and propensity to falls.
Management
gonadotroph axis function. Immunosupressive drugs may play a role in these disorders. However, in the ma-jority of the cases, gonadal function actually recovers after transplantation [96]. Glucocorticoid metabolism alterations may occur in transplanted patients and are
Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency should be cor- related to its chronic use to prevent organ rejection.
rected by using treatment strategies recommended for These patients should be advised to increase or re-
the general population to achieve a serum 25 OH-D assume glucocorticoid therapy during stress to avoid
concentration of at least 20 ng/mL to prevent and treat adrenal insufficiency.
osteometabolic diseases [55]. Low 25 OH-D has been in-
dependently associated with an increased risk of all- Conclusions
cause mortality in kidney transplantation [91]. Pleotropic
Disturbances in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids,
effects of vitamin D, such as immune response regula- and bone mineral are prevalent problems observed in
tion, and protective effects from cardiovascular disease, the follow-up of PTX patients. In addition to causing
cancer, and infections seem to be very attractive to the morbidity, such disturbances can indirectly increase the
transplanted population. However, more solid data are risk of death associated with cardiovascular diseases and
needed to confirm this and to set the optimal level of fractures. Previous recipient-related and donor-related
serum Vitamin D supplementation in order to attain the factors and others inherent to the transplant act together
best clinical outcome [92]. Calcium supplementation
in the pathogenesis of these abnormalities. Early recog-
(500 mg elemental calcium daily) appears to lower bone nition of such disturbances is the key to timely treat-
resorption after transplantation and should be routinely ment; however, adequate tools to achieve this goal are
prescribed—especially in regimens with high doses of frequently lacking. Further studies are needed to define
immunosuppressive drugs [93]. Calcium dietary intake
the best approach for PTX patients.
of at least 1 g daily should also be advised. PTX is a technically demanding procedure which is as-
In patients with established osteoporosis (presence of sociated with the above-mentioned abnormalities in the
densitometric osteoporosis or fractures associated with endocrine system beyond infectious and rejection com-
osteopenia), anti-resorption therapy, usually with plications. Furthermore, patient follow-up is complex
bisphosphonates orally or intravenously, is warranted due to multiple interfering factors, where immunosup-
[90, 94]. Bisphosphonates may also be beneficial to pre-
pressive drugs play an important role. Therefore, despite
vent bone loss after transplant, although this needs to be the good outcomes recently achieved in centers with a
more clearly established. specialized transplantation unit as well as recent ad-
In patients with persistent hyperparathyroidism after vances to the field, PTX should still be considered the
transplantation, calcitriol may provide additional benefits last resort treatment in patients whose diabetic compli-
in reducing bone loss [94]. A calcium sensor blocker
cations have become life-threatening or enough burden-
(Cinacalcet) has not yet been approved for use in trans- some to be maintained with the current available
planted patients and evidence of its safety in this clinical diabetes treatment.
setting is still incomplete. In refractory and persistent
cases of hyperparathyroidism, parathyroidectomy should Abbreviations
be considered [95]. PTX, pancreas transplantation; SPK, simultaneous pancreas kidney
transplantation; PAK, pancreas after kidney transplantation; PTA, pancreas
Other endocrine and metabolic diseases transplantation alone; A1C, glycated hemoglobin; HOMA-IR, homeostatic
model assessment; PTDM, posttransplant diabetes mellitus; OGTT, oral glu-
Thyroid diseases are common in the general population cose tolerance test; CGMS, continuous glucose monitoring system; LDL-c,
and, therefore, can be often observed in the pancreas low density lipoprotein cholesterol; 25 OH-D, 25hydroxy vitamin D
transplanted population. Furthermore, patients with type Funding
1 diabetes show increased incidence of autoimmune thy- This work is funded by FAPEMIG (Fundação Estadual para o Desenvolvimento
roid diseases. However, no relationship between pan- da Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais) and CNPq (Conselho Nacional de
Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico).
creas transplantation and thyroid disesases has been
described. Thus, screening and management of thyroid Authors’ contributions
diseases in pancreas transplanted patients is not different Both authors contributed to the conceptual development of the review,
references, drafting, editing, and the final approval of the manuscript.
from the general population.
Hypogonadism in men and women have been reported Competing interests
before and after pancreas transplantation, mainly in The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
those patients with SPK and probably due to the effects Received: 27 January 2016 Accepted: 3 July 2016
of the end stage renal disease in the hypothalamic-
Lauria and Ribeiro-Oliveira Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology (2016) 2:14
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