Learning Theories

Understanding theories of how learning happens and strategies for applying theories can help instructional designers make intentional choices to create effective learning experiences. Significant theories and some strategies for applying them are presented here.

Learning Theories

Behavioral Theory

• Learning is something that happens to the learner

• Evidence of learning is gained through observing changes in the learner's behavior

• Stresses importance of practicing skills & timely feedback

Schema Theory

• Long term information is stored in complex webs of related details

• Automation of processes allows more energy to be used for critical thinking

• Experts and novices different in amount of automation and complexity of schematic networks (experts have more automation and more complex schematic networks)

• A novice's simple schematic networks and minimal automation consume cognitive load the expert expends on critical thinking

Situated Learning Theory

• Learning is not just about the individual & the material

• Learning is the effect of participating and practicing in social & cultural environments

• Learn by doing

• Communities of learners build each other up by consulting each other & acting collaboratively to engage with the subject matter as scholars

Theory of Instruction

Robert M. Gagne's theory of instruction is a fitting companion to cognitive theories of learning. Here are some key elements of his theory.

• Learning can be cognitive (verbal & intellectual skills), affective (cognitive strategies & attitudes) or psychomotor (motor skills)

• Use "can do" learning outcomes that are appropriate to the type of learning

• The physical environment and the materials should be appropriate for the instruction

• Gain the learner's attention

• Inform learner of the goals of learning

• Help the learner recall what they already know about a topic

• Present the material to be learned to the learner

• Present strategies for learning it

• Give timely feedback

• Assess the learner's ability on the topic of instruction

• Encourage the learner in further study to assist with retention and transfer of knowledge

Constructivism

• Flips traditional conception of learning as something that happens to the learner to something that happens from the inside-out

• Teacher leads learner in inquiry, does not instruct

• Calls for authentic & complex problems for the learner to solve in a real-word environment

• Encourages learners to pursue their own interests as part of a community and to take responsibility for their learning

Connectivism

• Knowledge resides in a dense neural network of related facts in the brain (the network is what learns, not the person)

• Knowledge is not limited to humans; artificial intelligence can learn

• Information is in constant flux

Learning Theories & Design of Instruction

Before this semester, I had not studied educational theories or practices. Since my career is as an educator, I had unknowingly adopted strategies of learning theories I never knew existed.

I developed these strategies to address my best guesses as how my students learn and what kinds of support I could give them as I guide them in the right direction. Learning about learning theory now, it interests me to see what theories I landed on naturally, and for what kinds of activities.

I teach a four-semester beginning & intermediate Latin sequence online asynchronously at a large regional university to a diverse student body ranging from traditional students to adults working full-time and taking care of families, with a growing shift toward the latter group. I like to keep the student population in mind as I design my courses, and I cannot assume any previous language instruction, or even basic knowledge of English grammar like parts of speech. (I am one who did not learn English grammar until taking Latin in college, so I sympathize.)

To encourage memorization, I have tended toward behavioral & cognitive strategies. For more complex mental work like understanding a Latin text with respect to its vocabulary, morphology & syntax, schema theory is a better fit.

Connectivism

Though I struggle to see much place for application of connectivist theories in my classes, the online environment requires more learner autonomy than a face-to-face classroom, a source of both criticism and acclaim to the MOOC, the poster-class for connectivist learning. I conceive of this high level of learner autonomy as an obstacle I need to overcome with the rest of my teaching strategies to learners to persist through the course & motivate them to work consistently.

Constructivism

Latin is a technical subject with fixed rules that must be precisely applied, so constructivist theory is not the best fit for content delivery strategies. It is, however, appropriate for the grading and interaction aspects of the course.

The constructivist strategies I most recognize in my courses are those described as part of the "serious e-learning" project:

• The final grade is based on the scores learners earn through active performance, not passively through participation, reading or video-viewing

• I encourage engagement through comments on videos, discussion board participation, as well as provide a place for students to reach out to each other to form study groups.

• The course is extremely flexible so working adults & traditional college students alike can individualize when & how they spend their time, and how in-depth to go in alignment with their own personal & academic goals

I recommend a pace for completing the course in 15 weeks, and give deadlines on a MWF schedule. Students receive a zero at the due date, which helps motivate many of them to keep up. Learners can complete the work late without a penalty at any time, because I realize that they have any number of other responsibilities that must sometimes take precedence. I communicate with students often to help maintain a sense of accountability, especially if I see they have stalled or are struggling in their progress.

Behavioral & Cognitive

Strategies related to behavioral & cognitive theories comprise much of the course content. I

• Break up complex content into its smallest reasonable parts

• Stick to one topic per lesson

• Encourage students to practice new skills until they have mastered them with short (3-5 questions each, normally) infinitely repeatable quizzes using banks of questions to draw from

• Provide immediate feedback with one of four types of feedback

  • explanations about why an answer is correct or incorrect

  • guidance about a recommended process to arrive at the correct answer

  • the correct answer

  • that their answer is incorrect

• Motivate students to practice until they’ve mastered an activity and to return to self-test later by taking only the highest grade for any assignment

In line with a criticism of applications of these types of theories, students can choose not to take advantage of the feedback.

Reducing Cognitive Load (Schema Theory)

One thing that sets Latin experts apart from novices is a second-nature knowledge of Latin morphology. When I read Cicero, I can focus on the question, "What does this text mean?" while novices will be asking things like, "what does this ending mean on this word?" and even "what part of speech is this word?"

While students build up their morphology & vocabulary skills by memorizing & manipulating forms through drill-type exercises, it’s important to help them experience reading Latin for meaning.

It is overwhelming to the novice to find themselves facing an unedited passage of authentic Latin. I adopt a variety of methods to prop up the learners’ developing skills so they can experience reading a Latin text; three are given here:

1. Targeted vocabulary lists help reduce the burden of looking up long entries in a thick book and the nuisance of mis-identifying a word (a common problem among novices)

2. Providing tables that visually organize information for study and quick reference to prompt the learner to look for clues to understanding.

3. Working through Latin texts with students by giving them fill-in-the-blank translations or guided translation using screen-capture video, marking a text's syntax graphically