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Human research in delay discounting has omitted several procedures typical of animal studies: forced-choice trials, consequences following each response, and assessment of stable response patterns. The present study manipulated these procedures across two conditions in which real or hypothetical rewards were arranged. Six college students participated in daily sessions, in which steady-state discounting of hypothetical and real rewards was assessed. No systematic effects of repeated exposure to hypothetical rewards was detected when compared with first day assessments of discounting. Likewise, no systematic effect of reward type (real versus hypothetical) was detected. When combined with previous research failing to detect a difference between hypothetical and potentially real rewards, these findings suggest that assessing discounting of hypothetical rewards in single sessions is a practical and valid procedure in the study of delay discounting.

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Human decisions are more easily affected by a larger amount of money than a smaller one. Although numerous studies have used hypothetical money as incentives to motivate human behavior, the validity of hypothetical versus real monetary rewards remains controversial. In the present study, we used event-related potential (ERP) with the balloon analogue risk task to investigate how magnitudes of real and hypothetical monetary rewards modulate risk-taking behavior and feedback-related negativity (FRN). Behavioral data showed that participants were more risk averse after negative feedback with increased magnitude of real monetary rewards, while no behavior differences were observed between large and small hypothetical monetary rewards. Similarly, ERP data showed a larger FRN in response to negative feedback during risk taking with large compared to small real monetary rewards, while no FRN differences were observed between large and small hypothetical monetary rewards. Moreover, FRN amplitude differences correlated with risk-taking behavior changes from small to large real monetary rewards, while such correlation was not observed for hypothetical monetary rewards. These findings suggest that the magnitudes of real and hypothetical monetary rewards have differential effects on risk-taking behavior and brain activity. Real and hypothetical money incentives may have different validity for modulating human decisions.

Human decisions are motivated by various kinds of rewards, including money as a secondary but strong incentive for regulating human behavior. Since money is universally valued, scalable, and can be used as both an incentive and a punishment, it is widely used for decision research both in the real world and in the laboratory1,2,3. Currently, numerous decision researches used hypothetical rather than real monetary rewards4,5,6, for the reason that real money incentives may be too costly and may have some ethical issues, especially for studies involving a large amount of monetary rewards. However, it remains controversial whether hypothetical and real monetary rewards modulate decision behavior and brain activity in the same way.

Although earlier studies found no differences between hypothetical and real rewards among different task paradigms7,8,9,10,11,12,13, accumulating evidences from more recent studies suggested that hypothetical and real monetary rewards may have differential influences on human decision behavior and brain activity14,15,16,17, particularly when the reward scale or magnitude is large18,19. For example, previous studies have shown that when participants were receiving real rewards during the discounting tasks, their choices were more self-controlled and less impulsive18. Significant behavior differences between real and hypothetical rewards were also observed in economic games including the sharing game, the ultimatum game, and the dictator game15. Using a Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) paradigm, our previous study found that individuals became more risk averse after negative feedback (i.e., money loss) with real compared to hypothetical monetary rewards19.

A few neuroimaging studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and Electroencephalography (EEG) also suggested differential brain responses to real versus hypothetical rewards. For example, an fMRI study found stronger brain activation in the orbitofrontal cortex and ventral striatum when subjects made real purchases compared to hypothetical purchases16. A recent event-related potential (ERP) study demonstrated larger feedback-related negativity (FRN) in response to money loss during the BART risky decision making with real rewards compared to hypothetical rewards, which may reflect greater prediction error or regret emotion after real monetary losses17.

Apart from reward valence, reward magnitude (i.e., scale of payoff) also plays an important role in motivating human behavior. In general, both animals and humans prefer large rewards to small rewards20,21,22,23,24. For instance, participants would usually select more cards from disadvantageous decks with larger rewards when the reward magnitude was increased in the Iowa gambling task23. However, a few studies suggested that individuals may display different risk-taking and decision-making behavior changes to the increased magnitude of hypothetical versus real monetary rewards19,25. Specifically, participants became more risk averse when the scale or magnitude of real rewards increased, while no behavioral changes were found when the scale or magnitude of hypothetical rewards increased, suggesting an interaction between reward authenticity and magnitude on risk-taking behavior19. However, the neural bases for the potential differential effects of real versus hypothetical monetary reward magnitudes on risky decision-making behavior remain unclear.

In the present study, we used event-related potential (ERP) and measured brain responses to risk taking and decision making during the BART with large and small hypothetical or real monetary rewards, in order to examine the effects of real and hypothetical reward magnitude on risk taking in the brain. The BART is an ecologically validated cognitive task for the assessment of risk taking propensity and behavior26,27,28,29, in which participants are repeatedly given the option to continue or discontinue inflating a virtual balloon that could either grow larger or explode (see Fig. 1). Risk in the BART is typically defined as the probability of explosion for each balloon. The average number of inflation pumps participants make for the balloons provides an objective assessment of risk taking propensity26,27,28,29. We are specifically interested in the FRN component in response to negative feedback during the BART, because the FRN is a well-validated and widely-studied ERP component in the risk-taking and decision-making literature3,17,30,31,32,33,34. Previous studies have shown that the FRN is sensitive to outcome valence and magnitude and may reflect the evaluation of motivational and emotional consequences of decision outcomes35,36,37. We hypothesize that the magnitude of real monetary reward would show stronger influence than the magnitude of hypothetical monetary reward on the FRN after negative feedback (money loss) during the BART.

Correlations between delta FRN and delta risk-taking behavior. Delta FRN (FRN differences from small to large rewards) correlated with delta risk-taking behavior (differences in number of pumps participants made for each balloon from small to large rewards) under the real monetary reward condition (a) but not under the hypothetical monetary reward cikondition (b).

The present study examined how the magnitudes of real and hypothetical monetary reward modulate risk-taking behavior and brain activity using event-related potential with a well-validated BART paradigm. Behavioral data showed that participants made less number of balloon inflation pumps (i.e., were more risk averse) after negative feedback (loss) of large real monetary reward compared to small real monetary reward. However, there were no behavior differences between large and small hypothetical monetary rewards. These results replicated findings from a previous study showing that participants took less risk with increased magnitude of real rewards, while risk-taking behavior did not change with increased magnitude of hypothetical rewards19. The findings that participants were more risk averse with large real monetary reward compared to large hypothetical monetary reward are also in line with previous studies reporting less impulsive choices associated with real money14,17,18,19. However, no risk-taking behavior differences were found between small real monetary reward and small hypothetical monetary reward in this study, supporting the interactions between reward magnitude and reward authenticity on risky decision making. Taken together, these findings suggest that the magnitudes of hypothetical versus real monetary reward may modulate risk-taking and decision-making behavior in a different manner. e24fc04721