Format of the literature review
News article
1. ‘Can folklore play a role in environmental conservation?’ by Arundhuti Dasgupta
2. ‘Folklore and Environment’ by Arupjyoti Saikia
3. ‘Linking Indigenous Knowledge and Observed Climate Change Studies’[1]
4. ‘The Fertile past: The Gabra Concept of Oral Tradition’ by Aneesa Kassam
Papers by Chie Sakakibara
5. ‘Whale Tales: People of the Whales and Climate Change in the Azores’
6. "Our Home Is Drowning": Iñupiat Storytelling and Climate Change in Point Hope
7. No whale, no music’: Inupiaq drumming ˜ and global warming
8. Flood and Earthquake as Punishment of Gods in Antiquity by Yeşim Dilek1, Özge Kahya2
Theme:
Sacrificial rituals to prevent climate disasters
Relevant News articles
9. ‘Ancient civilization sacrificed more than 100 of their children to stop bad weather, say archaelogists’ by Ben Guarino, Washington Post
10. ‘Frog sacrifice in rain-starved Bihar’, The Statesman
11. ‘Monsoon Special: How to please a rain god’ by Radhika Iyengar
The article discusses the challenges and gridlock in global efforts to address climate change, loss of biodiversity, and other environmental issues. It emphasizes the lack of progress in international negotiations despite a consensus on the urgent need for action. The author suggests that to break through the deadlock, exploring micro-narratives in the mythology and folklore of various cultures might offer valuable insights.
The stories from folklore, which include myths about the creation of the universe, animal-headed gods controlling celestial bodies, and feathered divinities guarding immortality, are seen as more than fantastical tales. They are described as weaving a web of ideas around the relationships between humans, the Earth, the sky, animals, and the elements of life. These stories, rich in metaphor and meaning, are considered powerful because they speak to cultural contexts and are often considered sacred by the societies they belong to.
The article highlights the potential of folklore in offering sustainable models of living. While several organizations and researchers have recognized the significant role of such stories in influencing attitudes and finding solutions to environmental problems, the author argues that climate change negotiations often overlook the cultural nuances embedded in these narratives.
Drawing on the example of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest stretching between India and Bangladesh, the article delves into the folklore of Bon Bibi, a goddess revered by both Hindus and Muslims in the region. The folk myths explore the complex relationship between human habitation, the treacherous landscape, and the fragile ecological balance. The stories emphasize the kinship between the jungle, a shape-shifting tiger king, and human beings, highlighting the interdependence and respect needed to maintain harmony between the natural world and humans.
The article suggests that these folklore stories, with their open-ended and multi-versioned nature, can bring meaning to conversations about the environment. It argues that policymakers should consider incorporating indigenous narratives into policy frameworks, citing examples from the Western Ghats where conservation practices found in local myths and folk tales have effectively protected biodiversity. However, the article acknowledges challenges in using old narratives, including ascribing logic to stories that lack it and navigating complex religious belief systems.
The editorial introduces a volume focused on the theme of "Folklore and Ecology," which aims to explore the intersection of traditional folklore and ecological understanding. It references two books, "Drowned and Dammed: Colonial Capitalism and Flood Control in Eastern India" by Rohan D'souza and "Making Conservation Work: Securing Biodiversity in this New Century" by Ghazala Shahabuddin and Mahesh Rangarajan, which called for a re-investigation of colonial postulations about science and development.
The discussion emphasizes the need to re-evaluate historical paradigms regarding the colonial era's attitudes toward natural resources and the intricate relationship between people and nature. It mentions the challenges of relying on historical documents, often produced by the colonial government, and the call to investigate their nature for a more accurate understanding.
The text highlights the role of folklore in understanding the complex relationship between humans and the environment. It acknowledges the limitations of relying solely on written documents and draws attention to the importance of folklore materials, such as tales, sayings, songs, ballads, dances, and other forms of cultural expression, in illuminating the dynamic between people and nature.
The volume aims to contribute to a more sensitive understanding of ecology by exploring how folklore can shed light on the ecological perspectives of different communities. It mentions specific essays within the volume, such as Sarit Chaudhuri's study of Arunachal Pradesh, which explores the link between ecology and folk belief systems, and Benita Stamble's examination of the perception of rain gods in Gujarati folklores.
Additionally, Annu Jalias and Meena Bhargava discuss the Sundarbans, emphasizing the role of folklore in shaping the relationship between forest dwellers and the natural environment, including protection against tigers and alligators. Lastly, Ashok Kumar Sen addresses the methodological constraints of studying myths within folklore to understand contemporary ecology.
Essentially, the text introduces a volume that advocates for the integration of folklore into the study of ecology, recognizing its potential to provide insights into the historical and contemporary relationships between communities and their natural surroundings.
The paragraph discusses the concept of indigenous knowledge, focusing on traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which accumulates over generations within indigenous or local communities. TEK encompasses a cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs about the relationship between living beings and the environment. It often includes moral and ethical contexts, and there is no clear separation between nature and culture. TEK manifests through narratives and observations, providing intergenerational insights into natural resource phenomena. Since the 1980s, TEK has gained acceptance in various scientific fields, bridging indigenous perspectives with Western science.
The paragraph emphasizes both similarities and differences between TEK and Western science. The growing academic interest in TEK has led to a reciprocal relationship, facilitating a synthesis between the two knowledge systems. This collaboration occasionally results in the formation of new indigenous cultural identities during environmental unpredictability and cultural crises.
The passage also addresses the relevance of TEK in the context of climate change. For some indigenous communities, climate change is a significant concern, and initiatives like the Stories of the Raven and the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment demonstrate the potential for collaboration between diverse groups to address common problems. The paragraph acknowledges the historical power dynamics between indigenous and non-indigenous groups, recognizing the non-uniformity of traditional knowledge within communities.
The Center for Biodiversity and Conservation at the American Museum of Natural History organized a panel to discuss the challenges posed by climate change to indigenous groups and the role of indigenous knowledge in responding to climate change. The goal is to integrate indigenous knowledge with scientific data and analysis for informed decision-making and to contribute to understanding, adapting to, and mitigating climate change, fostering a meaningful exchange of information. The paragraph outlines the questions the panel aims to address regarding the experiences of indigenous communities with climate change, the correlation between indigenous knowledge narratives and observed climate changes, and the relationship between indigenous knowledge narratives and other climate change impact studies.
The author's approach to the study of oral tradition is influenced by G. Calame-Griaule's work among the Dogon of West Africa, particularly focusing on the intricate role of language in preliterate societies. Calame-Griaule argues that such societies have a unique conceptualization of language, with complex taxonomies and classification schemes for different speech categories. The author advocates an "ethnolinguistic" approach, emphasizing the importance of understanding a language through the perspective of native speakers rather than imposing external labels based on Western thought.
The study applies this methodology to the Gabra classification of oral genres, revealing a profound connection between their concept of oral tradition and the broader idea of life. The research exposes a fundamental theme in Gabra society—the notion of fertility—which permeates their cultural understanding of nature and culture.
The Gabra's conceptualization of language is crucial to this study. They believe that speech originates in the stomach, specifically beneath the navel, and that words are transmitted from the stomach to the mouth. The Gabra attribute great power to words and consider the stomach the seat of emotion and the source of speech's power.
The Gabra term for oral tradition is "finn duri," translated as the "fertility of long ago." The term "finna" (fertility) encompasses various meanings, primarily related to the biological cycle of reproduction in humans, animals, and plants. Fertility is linked to the heavenly rain, which promotes the growth of grass and ensures well-being through regular supplies of milk. The concept of finna extends beyond physical welfare to mental and psychological states, aligning with notions of peace and harmony. Disruptions marked by unrest, strife, or famine indicate a lack of finna, which the Gabra strive to rectify through prayers and sacrifices.
In the ritual context, the Gabra associate the source of finna and their traditional values with the political and ritual headquarters called "yaa." Words, seen as fertile, fertilize the imagination, and good talk is considered food for the ears. Tradition, referred to as "aada duri dur," consists of social, moral, and religious laws codified and handed down by ancestors to maintain the well-being or finna of the Gabra people. These laws govern the roles and functions of various elements in society, and the Gabra believe that adherence to tradition is essential to prevent chaos and disaster. The breakdown of tradition signifies the disintegration of their society and a departure from their traditional ways, a prospect viewed as chaotic and disastrous.
In a collection of over seventy Gabra folktales, various themes emerged, including cosmogonic, aetiological, totemic, fantastic, cannibalistic, allegorical, trickster tales, sexual tales, tales about women, tales about social change and behavior, and cumulative tales. Although the Gabra group these themes under the general term "duri duri," they differentiate and classify them based on content and structural similarity without having a specific term for this division into tale types. The tales fall into two broad spheres: social and imaginative. Social tales discuss people or judicial problem resolutions, often providing moral precedents, while imaginative tales introduce fantastic or supernatural elements. Despite claims of fixed forms, folktales undergo transformations, resulting in multiple versions. The Gabra emphasize memorization, and storytelling conventions, like opening formulas, aim to unite the storyteller and the audience. The study suggests that these formulas may symbolize cultural oppositions, such as culture versus nature and earth versus sky, reflecting the major theme of the tales centered around individual self-interest versus collective social interests.
“Moreover, the Gabra say that they judge a man by his ability to manipulate words. When a proverb is drawn from a folktale, it conjures up the situation exposed in the tale in the minds of the listeners, giving the proverb this added dimension. Some proverbs are concluded by the statement: 'so said the hyena', popularising the Gabra belief that the hyena communicates its thoughts and ideas to certain men.”
The article discusses the transformation and challenges faced by Point Hope, exemplifying the impact of environmental changes on Alaskan communities. Old Town in Point Hope is gradually disappearing into the Chukchi Sea due to factors such as the premature retreat of shorefast ice and rising sea levels. Erosion, intensified by wind-driven waves, poses a constant threat to the vulnerable land. The Chukchi Sea's water level, increasing approximately 3 inches per century, is attributed to warmer waters and melting glaciers. The rising sea level, accelerating over time, contributes to floods and erosion, major concerns for many Alaskan villages. The paragraph emphasizes the vulnerability of indigenous peoples, with Alaska's climate refugees facing inevitable relocation due to the environmental challenges. Additionally, the financial burden of addressing infrastructure issues, estimated at $6.1 billion, further underscores the complex and urgent issues faced by these communities.
The focus is on how the people in the Azores, particularly on Pico and Faial Islands, maintain their cultural pride as People of the Whales despite the abolition of whaling. The relationship between the islanders and whales becomes more complex due to climate change, altered whale behaviors, and efforts to establish contemporary human connections with the sea. As climate change affects Azorean communities, the role of whales in sustaining identities becomes increasingly significant as a shared cultural icon. The whale is identified as a cornerstone of cultural resilience, offering hope for the future. The cultural response among the Azoreans is explored, highlighting both similarities and differences with their Alaskan counterparts. Understanding Azorean identity is deemed crucial for interpreting the envisioned future of the northern Atlantic People of the Whales. The article delves into the history and meaning of Azorean whaling, terminated in the late 1980s and replaced by ecotourism. Despite the relatively recent adoption of whaling, sperm whales not only provided economic sustenance but also nourished emotions, expressive culture, and a sense of place for the islanders. Whaling and its legacy contributed significantly to modern Azorean social, cultural, and religious life. However, the islanders now face increased unpredictability of weather and climate, with a predicted future scenario of sea-level rise, frequent flooding, and erosion that could alter the islands' relationship with the ocean. The article raises questions about how abstract and modeled notions of climate change impact livelihoods and cultural practices in the Azores.
“Burch confirmed how the Iñupiat homeland has always been filled with spirit beings as much as living humans and animals. My findings suggest that, as the Arctic environment becomes more unpredictable, so do the distribution and behavior of its spirit beings. Additionally, villagers' perceptions of spirit beings have been changing. In the past, spirit beings were often considered dangerous and opposed to humans (Burch 1971; Millman 1987), but the current environmental change seems to influence the survival of both parties in the habitat they share.”
Burch discusses two types of "nonempirical" entities in the form of animals among the Iñupiat people. The first type consists of creatures identical to everyday animals but significantly larger, while the second type comprises giant creatures shaped like animals but unfamiliar in regular experiences, such as giant fish, birds, shrews, and mice. The Iñupiat perceive these creatures as highly dangerous and avoid their territories. Hunters recognize the "survival of the fittest" as a concept applicable to these animal-shaped spirit beings. Burch mentions dragons spending most of their lives in large lakes, and villagers recall stories about these creatures as real, associating them with a specific lagoon along the Chukchi Sea coast. The narrative reflects on the disappearance of these creatures, with a villager attributing it to changes in the landscape, particularly the draining of their lagoons due to factors like climate change-induced processes. The article underscores the Iñupiat's ability to connect their storytelling with changes in the physical environment, showcasing how their traditional worldviews intertwine with environmental processes.
“I end by arguing that storytelling, by renewing the kinship between humans and their land, is a critical form of cultural adaptation that represents an enduring quality of Iñupiat lifeways; as the rising sea erodes the ancestral land, storytelling weaves old and new homes into a viable place of cultural survival. Although climate change is occurring faster in the Arctic than in the lower latitudes, this phenomenon is no longer solely a regional issue. Thus, learning from the Iñupiat cultural adaptation can shed light on future dislocations of human identity outside the Arctic. It is my hope that this research inspires other scholars to attest the foundational nature of human-environment relationships elsewhere.”
The article’s central focus lies on the profound connection between the Inupiat people and whales, emphasizing the central role of rituals in the whaling cycle that symbolize the reciprocal relationship between humans and whales. The annual whale hunt is preceded and followed by elaborate rituals, conducted with the accompaniment of the whale drum and human voice, showcasing a symbolic exchange that culminates in the respectful act of hunting, where the whale gives itself to the hunters. An origin story highlights the interdependence of the Inupiat, whales, and their homeland, suggesting that the death of the whale aligns with the birth of the Inupiat and their territory. Climate change, however, poses a direct threat to these traditional lifeways, as it influences whale migration patterns, routes, and population, impacting the Inupiat's well-being.
The article delves into how Inupiaq musical practices during the whaling cycle are affected by variable whale harvests and how these cultural expressions are, in turn, influenced by associated changes. It illustrates that musical performances, including singing, dancing, and drumming, serve as a dynamic means for the Inupiat to construct and mobilize their close connection with whales. The author contends that Inupiaq music is not merely a static relic but a dynamic emblem of innovation and adaptation to challenges. The study suggests that as climate change brings cultural transformations in indigenous communities, human emotions give rise to new forms of expressive culture. In the context of the Inupiat, musical performance becomes a way to adapt to environmental changes, expressing concerns and fostering a coping mechanism. Ultimately, Inupiaq performance is seen as strengthening their relationship with whales and providing a means of navigating and surviving in a changing world.
Archaeologists in Peru have identified what they believe is the location of the world's largest child sacrifice site, dating back to the 1400s. The Chimu civilization is thought to have sacrificed around 140 children and over 200 animals, likely llamas, as a response to catastrophic weather events, possibly an extreme El Niño event. The burial pits were covered with a thick layer of mud indicative of such weather conditions. The children's well-preserved bodies were discovered near the Pacific, overlooking the ocean and a modern housing development. Surprisingly, the sacrificial practices of the Chimu, distinct from the Incas who succeeded them, were unknown until this discovery, adding a previously unknown chapter to the understanding of ancient sacrifice in world societies. The site, named Huanchaquito-Las Llamas, covers 7,500 square feet and is located near the ancient Chimu metropolis of Chan Chan.[3]
In Bihar's drought-prone Magadh region, farmers facing a 42% rainfall deficit this monsoon are resorting to rituals involving the sacrifice of thousands of frogs to appease rain Gods. In Chiriyawan village, a ritual called "Beng Kutni" involves crushing dozens of frogs. With the Meteorological Department predicting a continued dry spell, frustrated farmers are turning to superstitions. As part of the ritual, women create a makeshift water body, catch live frogs, hit them with bamboo sticks, and create a garland of dead frogs. The more abuse hurled during this process, the greater the belief in increased chances of rain. Widespread fear of a drought-like situation exists, impacting paddy farming, which is water-intensive. Of Bihar's 37 districts, 22 have received 60% less rainfall, and there are deficits of 87%, 82%, and 72% in Vaishali, Bhojpur, and Arwal, respectively. The state has recorded a 42% rainfall deficit compared to the normal average, heightening concerns among millions of farmers.[4]
The article discusses the concept of disasters, categorizing them into natural, technological, or human-induced events causing physical, economic, and social losses. Two main groups are identified: natural disasters (earthquakes, tsunamis, etc.) and those resulting from human activity (fires, explosions). It explores the cultural response to disasters, emphasizing the role of religious, mythical, and traditional beliefs in explaining their causes and developing rituals for protection. The article delves into historical perspectives, suggesting a link between disasters and divine punishment, with ancient civilizations attributing calamities to gods' anger. Flood and earthquake myths are examined as punishment from the gods, with a focus on the biblical Flood and the Mesopotamian Flood myth.
The article also touches on ancient beliefs about earthquakes being linked to Poseidon's anger in Greek mythology. The text highlights the human struggle with the unpredictable natural world and the evolution of cultural responses to disasters over time.
“Life for humans on earth has always required a conflict with the natural world. Although man has learned to hunt, gather, domesticate animals, and develop the soil over millennia of evolution, nature has always been unpredictable. The frequency of earthquakes, forest fires, storms, floods, hurricanes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, plagues, and epidemics was sufficient to persuade man that he was not in control of his environment. Numerous instances of these disasters, some of which appeared to overwhelm ancient civilizations, are documented in history; they all eventually turned into myths and legends (Grandjean et al., 2008). These myths capture not just the disaster itself but also how people reacted to it, asking why it occurred. Disaster was likely to be an expression of divine will in ancient times, when civilizations were fundamentally based on faith in God or gods: it was the anger of the gods that unleashed some tremendous misery on man.”
The news article explores historical rain-bringing rituals in northern India, shedding light on practices that aimed to invoke rain gods during times of famine or drought. William Crooke, a British orientalist, documents a ritual in Uttar Pradesh during the Gorakhpur famine of 1873-74, where women, facing poverty, resorted to a "nudity-spell." These women, stripped naked, dragged a plough across fields at night while men stayed away to preserve the spell's effectiveness. Another theory suggested the rain god's embarrassment triggered showers when exposed to obscenity. Anthropologist Sarat Chandra Mitra recounts a similar rain-bringing custom in Bihar during the summer of 1892. Women in northern regions marched through neighborhoods singing folk songs for 10-12 days, hoping for rain. Afterward, they returned to the fields, wielding a plough while singing and occasionally hurling abuse at local figures for good luck. Despite over a century passing, droughts persist in rural India, prompting the continuation of such rituals. The paragraph concludes by noting that even with the advent of scientific advancements, climate change predictions pose a threat, and traditional practices may not suffice to address the potential challenges arising from a projected 5-degree Celsius temperature increase by the end of the century.
Citations
https://idronline.org/article/climate-emergency/can-folklore-play-a-role-in-environmental-conservation/
National Folklore Support Center. "Folklore and Environment." Indian Folklife, A Quarterly Newsletter, Serial No. 28, January 2008, Guest Editor: Arupjyoti Saikia.
Makondo, Cuthbert. "Climate change adaptation: Linking indigenous knowledge with western science for effective adaptation." Environmental Science & Policy, vol. 88, 2018/07/06. DOI: 10.1016/j.envsci.2018.06.014.
Kassam, Aneesa. “The Fertile Past: The Gabra Concept of Oral Tradition.” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, vol. 56, no. 2, 1986, pp. 193–209. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1160632. Accessed 23 Jan. 2024.
Sakakibara, Chie. "Whale Tales: People of the Whales and Climate Change in the Azores." First published: 14 September 2011. Wiley Online Library.
Sakakibara, Chie. “‘Our Home Is Drowning’: Iñupiat Storytelling and Climate Change in Point Hope, Alaska.” Geographical Review, vol. 98, no. 4, 2008, pp. 456–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40377348. Accessed 23 Jan. 2024.
Sakakibara C. ‘No whale, no music’: Iñupiaq drumming and global warming. Polar Record. 2009;45(4):289-303. doi:10.1017/S0032247408008164
Dilek, Yeşim, and Özge Kahya. "Flood and Earthquake as Punishment of Gods in Antiquity." Journal of Disaster and Risk, doi:10.35341/afet.1230017.
https://nationalpost.com/news/world/fifteenth-century-child-sacrifice-was-response-to-catastrophic-weather-archeologists-say
https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/frog-sacrifice-rain-starved-bihar-1502663048.html
https://lifestyle.livemint.com/how-to-lounge/art-culture/monsoon-special-how-to-please-a-rain-god-111644473852324.html#:~:text=In%20the%20northern%20regions%20of,while%20they%20continued%20to%20sing.
[1] Chief Clarence Alexander1 , Nora Bynum2 , Liz Johnson2 , Ursula King3 , Tero Mustonen4 , Peter Neofotis5 , Noel Oettlé6 , Cynthia Rosenzweig7 , Chie Sakakibara8 , Chief Vyacheslav Shadrin8 , Marta Vicarelli5 , Jon Waterhouse1 , and Brian Weeks2
[2] Chief Clarence Alexander1 , Nora Bynum2 , Liz Johnson2 , Ursula King3 , Tero Mustonen4 , Peter Neofotis5 , Noel Oettlé6 , Cynthia Rosenzweig7 , Chie Sakakibara8 , Chief Vyacheslav Shadrin8 , Marta Vicarelli5 , Jon Waterhouse1 , and Brian Weeks2
[3] https://nationalpost.com/news/world/fifteenth-century-child-sacrifice-was-response-to-catastrophic-weather-archeologists-say
[4] https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/frog-sacrifice-rain-starved-bihar-1502663048.html