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Nestle truck driver Glen Kraft's driving log showed he was on the road when his boss received a text message from him. Company policy prohibits texting while driving, but Kraft argued he pressed send on the text while parked on the shoulder.

Microsoft originally sold MS-DOS only to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). One major reason for this was that not all early PCs were 100% IBM PC compatible. DOS was structured such that there was a separation between the system specific device driver code (IO.SYS) and the DOS kernel (MSDOS.SYS). Microsoft provided an OEM Adaptation Kit (OAK) which allowed OEMs to customize the device driver code to their particular system. By the early 1990s, most PCs adhered to IBM PC standards so Microsoft began selling a retail version of MS-DOS, starting with MS-DOS 5.0.

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The operating system offers an application programming interface that allows development of character-based applications, but not for accessing most of the hardware, such as graphics cards, printers, or mice. This required programmers to access the hardware directly, usually resulting in each application having its own set of device drivers for each hardware peripheral. Hardware manufacturers would release specifications to ensure device drivers for popular applications were available.[30]

In DOS, drives are referred to by identifying letters. Standard practice is to reserve "A" and "B" for floppy drives. On systems with only one floppy drive DOS assigns both letters to the drive, prompting the user to swap disks as programs alternate access between them. This facilitates copying from floppy to floppy or having a program run from one floppy while accessing its data on another. Hard drives were originally assigned the letters "C" and "D". DOS could only support one active partition per drive. As support for more hard drives became available, this developed into first assigning a drive letter to each drive's active primary partition, then making a second pass over the drives to allocate letters to logical drives in the extended partition, then a third pass to give any other non-active primary partitions their names (where such additional partitions existed and contained a DOS-supported file system). Lastly, DOS allocates letters for optical disc drives, RAM disks, and other hardware. Letter assignments usually occur in the order the drivers are loaded, but the drivers can instruct DOS to assign a different letter; drivers for network drives, for example, typically assign letters nearer to the end of the alphabet.[36]

Filenames ended with a colon (:) such as NUL: conventionally indicate device names, but the colon is not actually a part of the name of the built-in device drivers. Colons are not necessary to be typed in some cases, for example:

The DOS emulation in OS/2 and Windows runs in much the same way as native applications do. They can access all of the drives and services, and can even use the host's clipboard services. Because the drivers for file systems and such forth reside in the host system, the DOS emulation needs only provide a DOS API translation layer which converts DOS calls to OS/2 or Windows system calls. The translation layer generally also converts BIOS calls and virtualizes common I/O port accesses which many DOS programs commonly use.

The emulated DOS in OS/2 and Windows NT is based upon DOS 5. Although there is a default configuration (config.sys and autoexec.bat), one can use alternate files on a session-by-session basis. It is possible to load drivers in these files to access the host system, although these are typically third-party.

OS/2 allows for 'DOS from Drive A:', (VMDISK). This is a real DOS, like MS-DOS 6.22 or PC DOS 5.00. One makes a bootable floppy disk of the DOS, adds a number of drivers from OS/2, and then creates a special image. The DOS booted this way has full access to the system, but provides its own drivers for hardware. One can use such a disk to access cdrom drives for which there is no OS/2 driver.

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Attribution of desertification to climate variability and change, and to human activities, varies in space and time (high confidence). Climate variability and anthropogenic climate change, particularly through increases in both land surface air temperature and evapotranspiration, and decreases in precipitation, are likely to have played a role, in interaction with human activities, in causing desertification in some dryland areas. The major human drivers of desertification interacting with climate change are expansion of croplands, unsustainable land management practices and increased pressure on land from population and income growth. Poverty is limiting both capacities to adapt to climate change and availability of financial resources to invest in sustainable land management (SLM) (high confidence). {3.1.4, 3.2.2, 3.4.2}

The wildfire is a driver of desertification, because it reduces vegetation cover, increases runoff and soil erosion, reduces soil fertility and affects the soil microbial community (Vega et al. 2005148; Nyman et al. 2010149; Holden et al. 2013150; Pourreza et al. 2014151; Weber et al. 2014152; Liu and Wimberly 2016153). Predicted increases in temperature and the severity of drought events across some dryland areas (Section 2.2) can increase chances of wildfire occurrence (medium confidence) (Jolly et al. 2015154; Williams et al. 2010155; Clarke and Evans 2018156) (Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 2). In semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, fire can have a profound influence on observed vegetation and particularly the relative abundance of grasses to woody plants (Bond et al. 2003157; Bond and Keeley 2005158; Balch et al. 2013159).

Labour mobility is another key human driver that will interact with climate change. Although strong impacts of climate change on migration in dryland areas are disputed, in some places, it is likely to provide an added incentive to migrate (Section 3.4.2.7). Out-migration will have several contradictory effects on desertification. On one hand, it reduces an immediate pressure on land if it leads to less dependence on land for livelihoods (Chen et al. 2014183; Liu et al. 2016a). Moreover, migrant remittances could be used to fund the adoption of SLM practices. Labour mobility from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors could allow land consolidation, gradually leading to mechanisation and agricultural intensification (Wang et al. 2014184, 2018185). On the other hand, this can increase the costs of labour-intensive SLM practices due to lower availability of rural agricultural labour and/or higher rural wages. Out-migration increases the pressure on land if higher wages that rural migrants earn in urban centres will lead to their higher food consumption. Moreover, migrant remittances could also be used to fund land-use expansion to marginal areas (Taylor et al. 2016186; Gray and Bilsborrow 2014187). The net effect of these opposite mechanisms varies from place to place (Qin and Liao 2016188). There is very little literature evaluating these joint effects of climate change, desertification and labour mobility (Section 7.3.2).

Another assumption in RESTREND is that any trend is linear throughout the period examined. That is, there are no discontinuities (break points) in the trend. Browning et al. (2017)432 have shown that break points in NDVI time series reflect vegetation changes based on long-term field sites. To overcome this limitation, Burrell et al. (2017)433 introduced the Time Series Segmentation-RESTREND (TSS-RESTREND) which allows a breakpoint or turning point within the period examined (Figure 3.7). Using TSS-RESTREND over Australia they identified more than double the degrading area than could be identified with a standard RESTREND analysis. The occurrence and drivers of abrupt change (turning points) in ecosystem functioning were also examined by Horion et al. (2016)434 over the semi-arid Northern Eurasian agricultural frontier. They combined trend shifts in RUE, field data and expert knowledge, to map environmental hotspots of change and attribute them to climate and human activities. One-third of the area showed significant change in RUE, mainly occurring around the fall of the Soviet Union (1991) or as the result of major droughts. Recent human-induced turning points in ecosystem functioning were uncovered around Volgograd (Russia) and around Lake Balkhash (Kazakhstan), attributed to recultivation, increased salinisation, and increased grazing.

The drivers of dryland vegetation change. The mean annual change in NDVImax between 1982 and 2015 (see Figure 3.6 for total change using Global Inventory Modelling and Mapping Studies NDVI3g v1 dataset) attributable to(a)CO2 fertilisation(b)climate and (c) land use. The change attributable to CO2 fertilisation was calculated using the CO2 fertilisation relationship described in Franks et al. 20131793. The Time Series Segmented Residual Trends (TSS-RESTREND) method (Burrell et al. 20171794) applied to the CO2-adjusted NDVI was used to separate Climate and Land Use. A multi-climate dataset ensemble was used to reduce the impact of dataset errors (Burrell et al. 20181795). Non-dryland regions (aridity index >0.65) are masked in dark grey. Areas where the change did not meet the multi-run ensemble significance criteria, or are smaller than the error in the sensors (0.00001) are masked in white

The major conclusion of this section is that, with all the shortcomings of individual case studies, relative roles of climatic and human drivers of desertification are location-specific and evolve over time (high confidence). Biophysical research on attribution and socio-economic research on drivers of land degradation have long studied the same topic, but in parallel, with little interdisciplinary integration. Interdisciplinary work to identify typical patterns, or typologies, of such interactions of biophysical and human drivers of desertification (not only of dryland vulnerability), and their relative shares, done globally in comparable ways, will help in the formulation of better informed policies to address desertification and achieve land degradation neutrality. 2351a5e196