Golden Poison Frog
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Phyllobates terribilis, commonly known as the Golden Poison frog, is one of the most toxic animals on earth. Even among its relatives in the Dendrobatidae family, which contains all the poison dart frog species, the potency of its toxins stands out. According to an Aquarium of the Pacific article, the poison could be up to 20 times more toxic than that of other dart frogs. Another article from National Geographic notes how this frog, despite measuring roughly the height of a paper clip, possesses enough venom to kill 10 men. That is, in the wild. Remarkably, in captivity, these frogs have been found to lose most of their toxicity. This happens due to the lack of natural prey. Their diet of ants, termites, centipedes, and beetles, when metabolized, becomes the source of their deadly toxin.
Phyllobates terribilis, commonly known as the Golden Poison frog, is one of the most toxic animals on earth. Even among its relatives in the Dendrobatidae family, which contains all the poison dart frog species, the potency of its toxins stands out. According to an Aquarium of the Pacific article, the poison could be up to 20 times more toxic than that of other dart frogs. Another article from National Geographic notes how this frog, despite measuring roughly the height of a paper clip, possesses enough venom to kill 10 men. That is, in the wild. Remarkably, in captivity, these frogs have been found to lose most of their toxicity. This happens due to the lack of natural prey. Their diet of ants, termites, centipedes, and beetles, when metabolized, becomes the source of their deadly toxin.
Evolutionary Tree
Evolutionary Tree
Variability
Variability
Phyllobates terribilis is the most toxic of all poison frogs, and current research strongly supports that this is due to unique genetic adaptations that allow it to accumulate significantly more batrachotoxins than even its most comparable relatives like P. bicolor and P. aurotaenia. While all three species obtain toxins from their diet, hence their documented absence from fogs in captivity, P. terribilis appears to be genetically optimized for superior toxin uptake, storage, and resistance. One major factor involves Alkaloid-Binding Globulins (ABGs). These proteins are present in the organism's blood; they bind and transport toxins from the gastrointestinal tract to the specialized granular glands in the skin, where the toxins are stored. P. terribilis has likely evolved ABG proteins with higher binding affinity, can produce them in larger quantities, and has more efficient cellular machinery to transport these toxins to skin glands. It may also exhibit genetic differences in skin gland development, resulting in larger or more numerous toxin-storing glands.
Additionally, its genetic resistance to batrachotoxin, including the unique N1584T sodium channel mutation, allows it to survive toxin levels that would kill other species. Batrachotoxins are potent neurotoxins that target sodium channels in nerve and muscle cells, forcing them to stay open. This causes continuous nerve firing, muscle paralysis, and can lead to respiratory or cardiac failure in victims.
Amézquita A, Vargas-Salinas F, Ramos I, Palacios-Rodríguez P, Salazar EN, Quiroz M, Bolívar W, Galindo-Uribe DM, Mazariegos-H LA (2024) Molecular phylogenetics uncovers two new species in the genus Phyllobates (Anura, Dendrobatidae): the terrible frog gets two new sisters. ZooKeys 1212: 217-240.
Geographic Variability
Geographic Variability
The Golden Poison Frog also shows phenotypic variation within its species through geographic color morphs. While it's best known for its bright golden-yellow appearance, some populations are mint green or orange, and the intensity of these colors can vary quite a bit. Since these frogs are native to a small range in western Colombia, this variability is also called microgeographic diversity. This can occur because of genetic drift, which is where random changes in gene frequencies occur in isolated populations, or small differences in local conditions, like the types of predators or the way light filters through the environment, could have made a certain color beneficial for that particular setting, gradually locking those traits in over time.
Yellow Phyllobates terribilis found in Quebrada Guangui, Colombia
The mint green Phyllobates terribilis is found in the La Brea and La Sirpa areas in Colombia
The orange Phyllobates terribilis has been found living in Quebrada Guangui, Colombia
The orange blackfoot morph is a captive-bred line established by Tesoros de Colombia
Co-Evolved
The Golden Poison Frog was officially described in 1978 by researchers Charles W. Myers, John W. Daly, and B. Malkin. But its story began long before that, deep in the humid rainforests along Colombia’s Pacific coast. stretches back much further. In their detailed research paper, Myers, Daly, and Malkin explore the intricate connections between the Golden Poison Frog and the indigenous Embera people, who have coexisted with these vibrant amphibians for generations. The authors recount the potency of the frog's batrachotoxin, how a lethal dose for humans would be anywhere 2-200 micrograms, and how the Embera people harnessed this poison for hunting and perhaps also for warfare. By carefully rubbing the tips of their blow darts on the frog’s skin, they extract just enough poison to bring down their prey with precision. Out of the entire poison dart frog family, the golden poison frog was the only species that both possessed the required toxicity to have been used for hunting, and could deposit enough of those toxins by gently rubbing the tips of darts against the frog’s skin. This process caused no harm to the spicemen and demonstrates the careful co-existence of humans and Phyllobates terribilis (Myers et al., 1978).
Márquez R, Linderoth TP, Mejía-Vargas D, Nielsen R, Amézquita A, Kronforst MR. Divergence, gene flow, and the origin of leapfrog geographic distributions: The history of colour pattern variation in Phyllobates poison-dart frogs. Mol Ecol. 2020 Oct;29(19):3702-3719.
Human-Enabled Selection
Human-Enabled Selection
The extreme toxicity of Phyllobates terribilis is not only a product of natural selection, where more toxic individuals likely had a survival advantage by deterring predators, but it also influenced human selection practices. Indigenous communities in Colombia have long used these frogs to poison blow darts for hunting, like the Embera people. With P. terribilis, the toxin is so potent that extracting it from the frog was done efficiently by simply rubbing the tip of the darts on the surface of the frog's skin. In contrast, with less toxic Phyllobates species like P. bicolor or P. aurotaenia, "roasting" the frogs over heat was sometimes required to extract sufficient toxin (Myers et al., 1978). By doing this, humans could have selected for a larger population of golden poison frogs and, in turn, stronger toxins.
Even now, humans continue to influence the population and prominence of this organism through widespread habitat destruction caused by deforestation, agriculture, logging, and mining; leading to the endangered status the Golden Poison Frog holds today.
Bibliography
Bibliography
Márquez R, Linderoth TP, Mejía-Vargas D, Nielsen R, Amézquita A, Kronforst MR. Divergence, gene flow, and the origin of leapfrog geographic distributions: The history of colour pattern variation in Phyllobates poison-dart frogs. Mol Ecol. 2020 Oct;29(19):3702-3719. doi: 10.1111/mec.15598. Epub 2020 Sep 7. PMID: 32814358; PMCID: PMC8164878.
"Golden Poison Dart Frog." Aquarium of the Pacific, www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/golden_poison_dart_frog.
& J.W. Daly, The chemistry of poisons in amphibian skin., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (1) 9-13, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.92.1.9 (1995).
Myers, C. W., Daly, J. W., & Malkin, B. (1978). A dangerously toxic new frog (Phyllobates) used by emberá Indians of Western Colombia, with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning. Bulletin of the AMNH ; V. 161, Article 2. A Dangerously Toxic New Frog (Phyllobates) Used by Emberá Indians of Western Colombia, With Discussion of Blowgun Fabrication and Dart Poisoning. http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/1286/1//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/bul/B161a02.pdf
https://www.mindenpictures.com/search/page-1/golden+poison+dart+frog
Amézquita A, Vargas-Salinas F, Ramos I, Palacios-Rodríguez P, Salazar EN, Quiroz M, Bolívar W, Galindo-Uribe DM, Mazariegos-H LA (2024) Molecular phylogenetics uncovers two new species in the genus Phyllobates (Anura, Dendrobatidae): the terrible frog gets two new sisters. ZooKeys 1212: 217-240.
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