Secondary Sources
The Rise of Social Reform and Resistance
The Rise of Social Reform and Resistance
These secondary sources are primarily papers which delve into the caste system and clothing practices of Kerala during the 19th and 20th centuries. They focus on the social reform movements which led to the breakdown of the strict guidelines placed on clothing practices.
This paper examines the caste rules, jati Maryada, for men and women during the colonial period in Kerala. Other factors are discussed, such as language, but for the purpose of our studies, we will analyze the clothing discussions the author presents. Upper caste Nair, consisting of men and women, could ride carts (villuvandi) throughout the town and wear all-white, covering themselves fully. Lower caste people did not have this privilege. Ayyankali of the untouchable caste had broken the code by wearing clothing on his upper half and riding in a cart, inciting action among lower-caste women. His “acting” as a role, which is not his, emphasizes the caste system's performative nature, which the author wants to focus on.
Specifically, in clothing practices, Namboodiri (Brahmin caste) men and women covered their bodies and wore upper clothes, like the Nairs. Women hardly went outside, but if they did, they covered and were shielded away by others. They also wore gold jewelry, notably the cherutali necklace. Makeup consisted of three painted lines on their foreheads. The Nair women covered their upper bodies via the onnarayum mundum clothing. However, when around Namboodiri, Nair women must remove their chest clothing. Nair women often wore jewelry like necklaces and earrings (takka/toda). As time progressed into the 20th century, Nair women started to wear blouses (ravikkai) at home, whereas before, they traditionally didn’t cover up at home. The intermediate caste, Channars, could not cover their chest until the 1800s. Unlike the Nair, who wore more jewelry, they also didn't have nose piercings. Untouchable caste women could not cover up and needed to wear a red stone necklace (kallu mala) to signify their status.
This source shows the factors that dictated what women and men could wear during colonial Kerala based on their caste. It can be inferred that rigorous restrictions were implemented under the caste system. And without people like Ayyankali actively pursuing change via more extreme actions, it is difficult to imagine that change could have been possible. In terms of our overall argument, this allows us to analyze the caste system in the period of interest. Backing up our primary sources, we see clothing practices represented and supporting our argument. Furthermore, as would not be seen in a photograph or painting, this allows us to understand the rules that govern clothing practices. One key point of interest is that even upper-caste Nair could not always cover-up. This allows us to see that the caste systems are not as black and white as we initially thought.
In the article “Body as Revolt: The Myth of Nangeli, the Woman Who Covered Her Breast,” Ram explored the contextual background of a Dalit woman named Nangeli who went against the breast tax (mulakkaram) in Kerala in the 19th century during the rule of Travancore Kingdom. The breast tax required women from lower castes to pay a specific monetary fee to cover their breasts with a cloth. This practice perpetuated gender inequality and caste-based discrimination. Nangeli defied this caste system and patriarchal inequality by covering her breasts without paying the tax and finally giving her life in protest. Ram placed Nangeli’s story in the context of body politics, exploring her resistance in the forms of paintings, films, and novels. Ram also highlighted similarities between modern and historical movements. Specifically, comparing the steps toward liberation by concealing breasts to modern movements such as “Go Topless Day” to express concern of autonomy and equality to advocate for the freedom to bare breasts.
I can infer that Nangeli’s powerful story is a powerful symbol of resistance against structural oppression by forming the connection between caste and gender discrimination. The relevance shows how control over women’s bodies and clothing was utilized to impose repressive policies. I believe the story of Nangeli has influenced a variety of artistic interpretations that spark active, modern-day discussions about social justice and bodily autonomy. Also, the analogy between modern and historical movements heightens the ongoing fight for gender equality, with a focal point of empowerment and protest.
Ram’s depiction of Nangeli’s disobedience has a direct connection to the thesis centered around how caste-based clothing conventions were utilized to exploit women’s autonomy and identity. Nangeli’s act of resistance is a prime historical example of how important women's resistance is to raise questions about oppressive standards, changing Kerala's clothing practices and social dynamics over time. The source emphasizes how crucial it is to analyze and comprehend historical accounts to influence current movements for social equality. Ram illustrated how historical acts of disobedience are integrated into debates in Kerala about morality and feminist bodily autonomy through a variety of artistic mediums.
This paper examines multiple women’s rights movements during pre-modern Kerala. Because of caste policies during this period, it was difficult for women. Even high-caste women who could cover and ride in carts were often constrained inside, rarely leaving the house. The first incident discussed the Achippudava agitation of 1858, in which the Ezhava woman (weaver) wore the white cloth (achippudava) around the Nair people, and she was attacked. Because of this, a strike began in which low-caste farmers refused to work until the Nair attackers apologized.
The Melmmundu agitation of 1859 involved women wanting to cover their chests. Channar Christians were allowed to cover themselves with jackets (kuppayams) because of their religion, but this was not allowed for Hindu women. Hindu women began to follow suit, wearing jackets and scarves in protest. Furthermore, there was a breast tax in Travancore, in which they had to pay taxes as they entered puberty, with the tax cost dictated by breast size. Nangeli, an Ezhava woman, protested by sacrificing herself by cutting off her breasts. This caused more protests by Channar women, resulting in the British pressuring Travancore to allow Channar women to cover their chests. However, even with this, they still needed to wear different clothing styles from the Nairs and Brahmins.
The Kallumala agitation of 1915 expanded upon Ayyankali’s role as described in Dr. Naryan’s work. Lower caste and untouchable women still couldn’t cover their chests or wear traditional jewelry; they had to wear stone jewelry instead. Ayyankali organized mass protests in which Pulaya women would wear clothing covering their chests and refuse to wear jewelry. After an agreement was reached between Ayyankali and the Nairs, a large group of Pulaya women threw their stone necklaces off at once. The paper concludes by addressing that even with these movements that granted rights to women regarding clothing, there are still many problems today, such as rape and dowry deaths which still need to be addressed.
It can be inferred that it took many protests and organized events across many years for clothing rights to be granted. The fact that from 1859-1915, untouchable women still could not cover their chests was surprising to us. We initially thought that after the Nangeli incident, all women were granted the right to cover themselves, but it’s clear from this reading that it was not the case. This relates to our topic by showing multiple actions that resulted in women being able to cover their chests and wear certain jewelry. This was not a uniform process as it took varying amounts of time, depending on the caste. This shows the dynamic nature of Kerala’s caste system, and how it was not a simple “upper caste women can do X, lower caste women cannot.”
This article explores the social transformation of Malayali women during the early 19th century in Kerala, focusing on how caste and gender intersected through clothing practices. It examines how dress reforms reshaped women’s societal roles, particularly highlighting the caste-based restrictions on attire, such as the upper cloth for lower-caste women. The article talks about how clothing reforms worked to modernize their society but also reinforced patriarchal norms. This also further enforced the caste-based norms present at the time, particularly benefiting upper-caste women. This period can be referred to as the Breast-Cloth Struggle when resistance movements rose up to challenge the apparel reforms. Overall, the article underscores how dress, far from being a mere garment, became a powerful tool for both societal control and acts of rebellion, shaping women’s roles and status in pre-independence Kerala.
Based on this article, it can be inferred that clothing in Kerala was more than just a practical necessity; it served as a visible marker of caste and gender hierarchies. Reform movements aimed at modernizing women’s attire, such as promoting modesty through covering the body, inadvertently reinforced existing inequalities by limiting these changes to upper-caste groups. However, these restrictions also laid the groundwork for resistance, as seen in acts like Nangeli’s defiance and the broader Breast-Cloth Struggle. The article suggests that education and increased awareness among women played a crucial role in enabling these acts of defiance, underscoring the importance of knowledge and awareness in societal change. This eventually led to societal norm shifts, highlighting the idea that as caste-based restrictions loosened, other aspects of women’s autonomy, such as their right to self-determination and bodily independence, began to take shape.
This article supports our project’s argument by providing crucial context on the intersection of caste, clothing, and women’s resistance in Kerala. The discussion on how dress reforms both challenged and reinforced caste hierarchies aligns with our focus on the role of attire as a site of control and rebellion. For instance, the Breast-Cloth Struggle exemplifies how lower-caste women used clothing to assert their identity and fight against systemic oppression. Additionally, the article’s emphasis on patriarchal control through dress reforms complements our exploration of how women’s roles evolved within Kerala’s rigid social landscape. It also bridges a gap in our research by highlighting how these movements contributed to broader discussions about moral standards and women’s autonomy in Kerala. Therefore, this source is invaluable for illustrating the wider implications of caste and apparel in shaping Kerala’s historical and contemporary gender dynamics.
Her-Self: Gender and Early Writings of Malayali Women, 1898-1938, edited by J. Devika, is a compilation of essays and writings by Malayali women that were written throughout the early 20th century, which give us insights into the resistance strategies employed by Malayali women in a society undergoing modernization. This source provides primary accounts from Malayali women who witnessed and contributed to social change. The writings discuss issues such as caste-based restrictions, the breast tax, and shifts in gender roles, offering a unique window into how women perceived and responded to oppressive social structures. J. Devika, a respected scholar of gender studies and Kerala’s social history, brings extensive research and expertise to this compilation of writings, which thus makes the source highly credible and academically reliable.
The source discusses the shift from a caste-based society, or Janma-bhedam, to a more gender-focused culture in Kerala in the late-nineteenth century. This may be complemented by the rise of British influence in clothing and cultural norms, causing a shift in sartorial practices among upper and lower-class women throughout the region, as displayed through other sources in this project. The book largely talks about the reshaping of women's and men’s roles in society, with women rising to the role of the “guardian of the home” and complementing the man’s role in a primarily public sphere of society.
As a scholarly and well-curated collection, Her-Self is an invaluable contribution to understanding Kerala’s gender dynamics and social transformations during a critical period of its history. By incorporating this source, we are able to display how societal change under the British was also accompanied by changing gender norms and a shift from a caste-based society to a society classified by gender roles and class. This is supported by other primary and secondary sources in this project, showing a shift in sartorial practices and cultural norms under colonialism, with the intersection of women’s movements and the imposition or denying of clothing standards based on class/caste.