The utilization of individual dyes or nanoparticles for optical encoding is constrained by the spectral overlap of their photoluminescence spectra and the concentration-dependent nature of photoluminescence intensity. Employing concentration-independent photoluminescence lifetime multiplexing with individual nanoparticles presents a novel approach for achieving higher-order spectrotemporal photoluminescence barcoding.

Theranostic nanorobots are a type of nanorobot that combines therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities in a single platform. These nanorobots can be designed to target specific disease sites and perform a variety of tasks, such as drug delivery, sensing and imaging, and even tissue repair. The integration of diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities into a single nanorobot enables real-time monitoring of the therapeutic response, allowing for personalized medicine and improved treatment outcomes.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) will mimic the structure and function of viruses by displaying multiple copies of one or more viral structural proteins. Specifically, the VLPs can be functionalized with tumor antigens at defined copies and various spatial spacings to investigate immune responses against cancer cells, leading to the development of a highly effective cancer vaccine. Furthermore, the VLPs can also be functionalized with secondary fluorophores emitting in the second biological window, enabling long-term, background-free in vivo tracking.