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The idea of learned-helplessness came from experiments on dogs who were placed in a box that had an a section of electrified floor, and a section that did not. In 1967, Martin Seligman and Steven Maier discovered that "dogs exposed to inescapable and unavoidable electric shocks in one situation later failed to learn to escape shock in a different situation where escape was possible (Maier and Seligman, 1976, p. 3).
Main Motivational Patterns in Expectancy Theory
Main Motivational Patterns in Expectancy Theory
The main motivational patterns in expectancy theory are expressed as students either possessing learned-helplessness or a well-defined sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993). For example, a student who displays a perceived sense that they are unable to complete a task due to a notion that their intelligence is fixed and untrainable would constitute a student that is exhibiting learned-helplessness (Bandura, 1993). Inversely, a student who continually attempts to exploit the possibility of improvement even in the face of failure would be an example of a student who displays a well-defined sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993). Moreover, students tend to be defined as either self-efficacious or learned-helpless, and there is not much overlap in between (Bandura et al, 1996). Between the two poles of learned helplessness and a sense of self-efficacy lie patterns in student and teacher experience that help contribute to either learned-helplessness or self-efficacy in students.
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