1 Introduction

In the historical sources written by living ancient writers and poets, there is a period in which the activities of the ancient Greeks are completely unknown.

In other words, there was a gap of about 100 years from the late 11th century BC to the late 10th century BC.

This is the period known as the Greek Dark Ages.

The following three major characteristics of the Dark Ages can be cited.

1) There are few written sources, and the state of the period is unknown.

2) There was little interaction between regions, and people's activities were stagnant.

3) When creating the genealogy of the ancient Greeks, there was a gap of about 4 generations in the genealogy of that era.

2 Ancient Greeks and letters

Before examining the characteristics of the Dark Ages, I would like to take a look at the relationship between the ancient Greeks and letters.

2.1 The oldest records of ancient Greece

Pausanias writes that Parnassus, son of Cleopompus and Cleodora, founded the oldest town, but it was washed away by a flood. [1]

Pausanias is presumed to have referred to Apellas' Delphic History, which is cited by his contemporary theologian Clemens of Alexandria. [2]

Appellas researched the ancient sources of Delphi and wrote his Delphic History.

2.2 Date of oldest records

The flood that washed away the town founded by Parnassus is described by Pausanias as a flood of Deucalion era. [3]

However, it was not the time of Deucalion, but the time of Ogygus, the ancestor of the Athenians. [4]

The great flood of Ogygus' time was 190 years before Cecrops, the first king of Athens. [5]

Counting backward from the year of the accession of the Kings of Athens, the Great Flood of the Ogygus era occurred in 1750 BC. [6]

2.3 Records of tradition

It is unlikely that Delphians in 1750 BC had a script to record genealogies and events.

Compared to Argos and Thebes, there is very little information about Delphi's lineage and events.

Even that little information seems to have remained in towns other than Delphi.

Those who recorded it were ancient historians and people who collected old folklore.

And what made this possible was the alphabet that the Phoenicians brought to Greece. [7]

However, the alphabet was Phoenician letters and required knowledge of the Phoenician language. In other words, it was necessary to learn a language before learning to write.

Writing was monopolized by people in special positions, such as priests and scribes.

2.4 Transmission of letters

It is generally believed that the Phoenicians, who migrated to Boeotia with Cadmus, brought the alphabet to Greece. [8]

However, although Cadmus's migration occurred in 1420 BC, there are events that appear to have been recorded in writing in Athens before then.

It is an old record about Thessaly.

2.5 Old records of Thessaly

The genealogy of Deucalion of Thessaly is told in detail, down to the children of Aeolus, son of Hellen, son of Deucalion.

However, as for the children of Mimas, son of Aeolus, only the name Hippotes, son of Mimas, is known. Regarding the children of Hippotes, only the name of Aeolus, the son of Hippotes, is known. [9]

After the time of the children of Aeolus, son of Hippotes, their genealogy becomes very detailed.

In other words, the records of the era of Mimas and Hippotes are blank.

The reason why the genealogy and events before that gap have been passed down is thought to be due to the following marriage.

1) Amphictyon, son of Deucalion, married the daughter of Cranaus, the second king of Athens. [10]

2) Xuthus, son of Hellen, married Creusa, daughter of Erechtheus, the fourth king of Athens. [11]

Thus, it is presumed that through these marriages, genealogies and events from the time of Deucalion to the time of Xuthus were recorded in Athens.

If it were not for the marriages of Amphictyon and Xuthus, no genealogies or events prior to the time of Aeolus, son of Hippotes, would have been recorded in the ancient historical sources.

2.6 Introduction of letters to Athens

2.6.1 From Boeotia

When Eumolpus invaded Attica in 1415 BC, the Athenians took refuge with the Gephyraeans, who lived around Tanagra. [12]

The Gephyraeans were a branch of the Phoenicians who migrated to Boeotia with Cadmus in 1420 BC. [13]

Through this temporary cohabitation, Praxithea, the daughter of Diogenia, the daughter of Cephisus, the leader of the Gephyraeans, married Erechtheus, the sixth king of Athens. [14]

The Gephyraeans, who migrated to Athens with Praxithea, passed on the Phoenician letters to the Athenians. [15]

However, if before this the Athenians did not record in written form and only passed down oral traditions, some traditions cannot be explained.

The length of reign and genealogy of the five Athenian kings that preceded Erechtheus, as well as the events of each king's reign, can be passed down orally.

However, it is unlikely that the genealogy and events of Deucalion, who lived in Thessaly rather than Athens, and his descendants, were passed down orally.

It is assumed that the Athenians were using letters before the Phoenicians of Boeotia brought Phoenician letters to Athens.

2.6.2 From Egypt

The 2nd century AD historian Tacitus tells us that the Phoenicians only brought the alphabet to Greece, but that it was the Egyptians who invented it. [16]

The 1st century AD writer Hyginus also reported that Cadmus brought letters from Egypt to Greece. [17]

The 4th-century BC historian Callisthenes and the 3rd-century BC historian Phanodemus, author of the Ancient History of Attica, recorded that the Athenians were the ancestors of the people of Sais in Egypt. [18]

The 1st century BC historian Diodorus Siculus also wrote that the Athenians were colonized from Sais in Egypt. [19]

The Athenians from Sais were the people who immigrated from Egypt to Attica with Cecrops, the first Athenian king.

And it was Cecrops who brought the alphabet from Egypt to Athens.

Cecrops had the name Diphyes, which means "two-formed." It meant "to speak two languages." [20]

Cecrops spoke Greek and the Phoenician language.

Greek immigrants who lived in the Nile Delta had connections to Phoenicia, which was on the sea route from Greece to Egypt. The relationship between the two can be seen in the following four points.

1) Herse, daughter of Cecrops, married Tyre of Phoenicia. [21]

2) Phoenix, son of Agenor, married Perimede, daughter of Oeneus, a descendant of Herse. [22]

3) Phoenix, son of Agenor, was king of Tyre. [23]

4) Agenor and his son Cadmus, exiled from Egypt, migrated to Sidon near Tire. [24]

2.7 Records by letters in Athens

After Cecrops, Cranaus migrated from Egypt to Attica. [25]

Later, Cranaus' grandson Erichthonius immigrated from Egypt and became the fourth king of Athens. [26]

Rharus, the son of Cranaus, who had migrated with Erichthonius, lived in Eleusis. [27]

Descendants of Rharus and his son Celeus were priests of Eleusis, and it is thought that genealogies and events were recorded in that town.

The genealogies and events of Thessaly may have been recorded by hearing from Amphictyon, son of Deucalion, who married the daughter of Cranaus, and those who emigrated with him to Athens. [28]

However, Amphictyon was chased from Athens by Erichthonius, and it is possible that he heard and recorded it before then. [29]

Or after Amphictyon, they heard and recorded Xuthus, son of Hellen, who married Creusa, daughter of Erichthonius, or the people who emigrated with Xuthus to Athens. [30]

3 Rise of literary activity

The ancient Greeks had access to writing, but only a limited number of people, such as priests and scribes, could read and write. Before one could read or write, one needed to know the Phoenician language.

Priesthood was a profession with special abilities, as the priestess of Mount Ptous in Boeotia professed oracles in the Carian language. [31]

Literary activity flourished after the invention of the alphabet, which allowed reading and writing in Greek.

3.1 Invention of Pelasgic letters by Linus

The 2nd century AD historian Tacitus reports that writing was invented by Linus of Thebes. [32]

Pelasgic letters were used until the time of Orpheus and Pronapides, the master of Homer, so the letters devised by Linus before them were Pelasgic letters. [33]

Linus invented Pelasgic letters by applying the Phoenician letters introduced by Cadmus to the Greek language. [34]

This made the use of letters, which had been the privilege of those who spoke the Phoenician language, available to those who spoke the Greek language.

Before the Dorian invasion, the Argives and Athenians spoke the same language, the Pelasgic language. [35]

3.2 First instance of the use of Pelasgic letters

The first identified user of Pelasgic letters is Lycus, a son of Pandion.

Pausanias records an oracle given to the Messenians by Lycus, son of Pandion. The oracle told them that if they kept their secret treasure safe, even if they lost their land, they would eventually recover it. [36]

The secret treasure was a tin foil on which the Mysteries of the Great Goddess were written. [37]

During the Second Messenian War, the Messenians, attacked by the Spartans, placed a tin foil containing the Mysteries of the Great Goddess in a bronze jar and buried it in Mt. Ithome. [38]

Ithome, which had been barricaded by the Messenians, fell, and the priests of the Mysteries of the Great Goddess fled to Eleusis. [39]

In 371 BC, after the Spartans were defeated at the Battle of Leuctra, the Messenians returned from various places and dug up the pots they had buried in Mt. Ithome. The priests of the Mysteries of the Great Goddess copied the rites of the mysteries. [40]

The priests copied the rites of the mystery ceremony.

It is estimated that Lycus, son of Pandion, visited the Messenians around 1277 BC.

Lycus, son of Pandion, learned Pelasgic letters from Linus and used them to write the rites of the mysteries.

3.3 Estimation of the age of Linus

The 5th century AD theologian Jerome makes Linus a contemporary of Cadmus. [41]

Other theories suggest that Linus was a contemporary of Amphion and Zethus. [42]

However, when Linus died, people mourned him, and it was at its height that Pamphos reportedly created the oldest Athenian hymns. [43]

Pamphos was a contemporary or a slightly later generation of Olen, son of Lycus, son of Pandion. [44]

Olen founded Apollo's oracle at Delphi in 1255 BC. [45]

Based on the above, it is estimated that Linus was born around 1320 BC.

Linus was born around the time that Antiope's son Amphion died and Labdacus' son Laius became king of Thebes. [46]

3.4 Linus' life

Linus, the son of Amphimarus and Ourania, was born in Thebes in 1320 BC. [47]

At least until 1205 BC, when Thebes fell to the Ephigoni, Thebes was inhabited by the Phoenicians, who had migrated with Cadmus. [48]

In 1285 BC, Linus studied the Phoenician language and letters and invented Pelasgic letters. [49]

Linus then emigrated from Thebes to Chalcis in Euboea. [50]

In 1250 BC, Linus died and was buried at Chalcis. [51]

Chalcis became a literary town, and competitions were held in which Hesiod took part. [52]

3.5 Poets before the Trojan War era

3.5.1 Lycus family

Lycus was the son of Pandion, the 8th king of Athens. [53]

In 1277 BC, Lycus emigrated from Athens to Lycia via Messenia, pursued by his brother-in-law Aegeus. [54]

3.5.1.1 Lycus, son of Pandion (Born 1305 BC)

Lycus visited Aphareus, son of Perieres of Arene in Messenia, and held a secret council in Andania. [55]

Lycus left the Messenians a tin foil inscribed with the rites of the Great Goddess's mystery ceremony, along with an oracle instructing them to guard it carefully. [56]

Before Lycus was driven from Athens, Linus taught him Pelasgic letters, and he wrote the Mysteries of the Great Goddess on tin foil.

Before being driven from Athens, Lycus used the Pelasgian letters he had learned from Linus to inscribe the rites of the Great Goddess's mysteries upon a tin foil.

3.5.1.2 Olen, son of Lycus (Born 1280 BC)

Olen was an epic poet from Lycia who composed the oldest hymns for the Greeks. [57]

There is no information about Olen's father, but he is presumed to be Lycus, son of Pandion.

In 1255 BC, Olen, along with the Hyperboreans Pagasus and Agyieus, founded Apollo's oracle at Delphi. [58]

Olen was the first to make a prophecy in Apollo's oracle, and the first to chant in six rhymes. [59]

3.5.2 Philammon family

Philammon was the son of Daedalion, son of Actor of Phthia in Thessaly, and Philonis, daughter of Deion (or Pandion) of Thoricus in Attica. [60]

Philammon's maternal grandfather Pandion was the 8th King of Athens.

3.5.2.1 Philammon, son of Philonis (Born 1287 BC)

In 1243 BC, Philammon won the competition to sing the Pythian Apollon hymn. [61]

3.5.2.2 Thamyris, son of Philammon (Born 1267 BC)

Thamyris was the son of Philammon and Odrysaean woman Argiope. [62]

In 1239 BC, Thamyris won the competition to sing the Pythian Apollon hymn. [63]

Thamyris occupied the area near Mt. Athos on the Chalcidice peninsula. [64]

Thamyris was called Odrysian or Thracian. [65]

Thamyris had the best voice and the neatest singing style. [66]

Thamyris abandoned his lyra because he became blind. [67]

3.5.2.3 Musaeus (or Mousaios), son of Thamyris (Born 1245 BC)

Musaeus, son of the lyric poet Thamyris, lived in Thebes. [68]

Musaeus composed a Demeter hymn for the Lycomidae. [69]

3.5.3 Pierus family

Pierus was the son of Linus, son of Pierus, son of Magnes, son of Aeolus. [70]

Pierus' great-grandfather Magnes migrated from Arne in Thessaly to near Mount Olympus. [71]

Pierus' grandfather Pierus was the founder of Pieria in Macedonia. [72]

3.5.3.1 Pierus, son of Linus (Born 1275 BC)

In 1250 BC, Linus' son Pierus migrated from Pieria to Thespiae in Boeotia. [73]

Pierus was the first to write a hymn to the Muses. [74]

The descendants of Pierus became a line of poets called Pierides or Pieriae. [75]

Pierus had nine daughters, and Pierus became the father of Muses. [76]

3.5.3.2 Oeagrus, son of Pierus (Born 1250 BC)

Oeagrus, son of Pierus, is said to have won a singing contest, and it is assumed that he was also a poet. [77]

3.5.3.3 Orpheus, son of Oeagrus (Born 1229 BC)

Orpheus was born in Leibethra, at the foot of Mount Olympus, the son of Oeagrus and Kalliope. [78]

Orpheus is said to be Ciconian or even Odrysian, but his male ancestors were Aeolis. [79]

Orpheus wrote "Genealogical Theory." [80]

Orpheus was an epic poet and composed poems for the Lycomidae. [81]

The Lycomidae sang the hymns composed by Orpheus during their festivals. [82]

Orpheus was killed at Dium by the women who feared that their sons and husbands would be taken away from them because the men who adored Orpheus went in droves with him. [83]

In the 4th century BC, there was a statue of Orpheus made of cypress in Leibethra, the birthplace of Orpheus. [84]

3.5.4 Musaeus family

The ancestor of Orpheus' disciple Musaeus was Eumolpus, who invaded Attica in 1415 BC, fought the Athenians, and settled in Eleusis. [85]

Musaeus was the son of Eumolpus, son of Musaeus, son of Antiophemus, son of Eumolpus, son of Ceryx, son of Eumolpus.

Eumolpus, son of Ceryx, came from Thracia to aid Eleusis in the battle between Eleusis and Athens in 1352 BC, and later settled in Eleusis. [86]

3.5.4.1 Musaeus, son of Antiophemus (Born 1300 BC)

Musaeus was a poet and male oracle speaker. [87]

3.5.4.2 Eumolpus, son of Musaeus (Born 1270 BC)

Eumolpus was an epic poet who won the Pythian competitions. Eumolpus was a disciple of Orpheus. [88]

Eumolpus was the fifth generation from the first Eumolpus, and he invented the initiation ceremony. [89]

Eumolpus became the progenitor of the Eumolpidae. [90]

3.5.4.3 Musaeus, son of Eumolpus (Born 1245 BC)

Musaeus was born in Eleusis. [91]

Musaeus was a disciple of Orpheus, although he was older than him. [92]

Because Musaeus imitated Orpheus, he did not participate in the competition to sing the Pythian Apollon hymn. [93]

Musaeus was the first to write the Theogony and create a celestial globe. [94]

Musaeus taught that all things arise from one and are dissolved into one again. [95]

Musaeus died in Phalerum of Athens. [96]

3.5.5 Chrysothemis, daughter of Carmanor (Born 1268 BC)

Chrysothemis was the daughter of Carmanor, who lived in Tarrha in southwestern Crete. [97]

In 1247 BC, Chrysothemis won the competition to sing the Pythian Apollon hymn. [98]

3.5.6 Palamedes, son of Nauplius (Born 1230 BC)

Palamedes' father Nauplius lived in Nauplia of Argolis. [99]

In 1225 BC, Nauplius, son of Clytonaeus, was chased by the Achaeans and exiled to Chalcis in Euboea. [100]

It is assumed that Palamedes, the son of Nauplius, also emigrated to Chalcis with his father at this time. [101]

Palamedes learned Pelasgic letters in Chalcis and added new letters to the alphabet. [102]

3.6 Poets of unknown genealogy before the Trojan War era

3.6.1 Phemonoe (Born 1280 BC)

Phemonoe became the first female seer of Apollo's oracle at Delphi, and she was the first to recite the oracle in six rhyming verses. [103]

3.6.2 Pamphos (Born 1280 BC)

Pamphos was an Athenian and composed poetry for the Lycomidae. [104]

Pamphos created an epic later than Olen. [105]

Pamphos created the oldest Athenian hymns, but at a time when the mourning of Linus was at its height, so Pamphos was called ''Linus the Unfortunate'' (Oetolinus). [106]

3.6.3 Automedes (Born 1260 BC)

Automedes of Argos was the master of Demodocus. [107]

3.6.4 Perimedes (Born 1260 BC)

Perimedes of Argos was the master of Demodocus. [108]

3.6.5 Demodocus (Born 1240 BC)

In Homer's Odyssey, Demodocus says that the Achaeans captured Troy by trickery using wooden horse. [109]

Demodocus is presumed to be the original author of Homer's Iliad, based on the following circumstances:

1) Demodocus was a native of Laconia. [110]

2) Demodocus was a disciple of Automedes and Perimedes of Argos. [111]

3) Demodocus was an excellent poet who won prizes in Pythian competitions. [112]

4) Demodocus was hired by Agamemnon of Mycenae. [113]

5) Demodocus was hired by Alcinous of Corcyra. [114]

6) Helenus, son of Priam, who fled from Troy, lived in Butrotum, near Corcyra. [115]

7) Demodocus wrote The Destruction of Troy. [116]

In other words, Demodocus seems to have heard about the battle at Ilium from Helenus and created a story featuring Agamemnon as the main character.

3.6.6 Phemius (Born 1230 BC)

Phemius was a poet of the Odysseus family of Ithaca who appears in Homer's Odyssey. [117]

Phemius is the son of Terpes and also appears as Helen's suitor. [118]

3.6.7 Dictys, son of Molus (Born 1230 BC)

Dictys accompanied Idomeneus, son of Deucalion, son of Minos, on an expedition from Crete to Troy.

He chronicled the Trojan War in nine volumes in the Phoenician alphabet.

3.6.8 Corinnus (Born 1220 BC)

Corinnus was a disciple of Palamedes and wrote an epic poem. Corinnus first wrote the Iliad during the Trojan War. Homer took the idea of Corinnus' work and made it his own. [119]

3.7 Creative activities before the Trojan War era

3.7.1 Argonauts Expedition Story

3.7.1.1 Heroic Expedition

It is estimated that the first Argonaut expedition story was written in 1248 BC, with the participation of famous people of the time.

When creating a genealogy, the participants in the expedition are of the same generation and consistent with genealogies obtained from other historical sources.

There are no Minyans among the participants in the expeditions of the Argonauts that are told in modern times.

The 3rd century BC epic poet Apollonius of Rhodes wrote Argonautica as a story about the heroes of the Minyans, but he seems to have no idea why the Minyans were involved.

Apollonius identifies Jason, born in Thessaly, was a Minyan, because he is the son of Alcimede, daughter of Clymene, daughter of Minyas of Orchomenus. [120]

Apollonius also calls Phrixus, the son of Athamas, who lived in Colchis and was not related to the Minyans, as a Minyan. [121]

The reason for Apollonius's misunderstanding seems to be that Clymenus, son of Presbon, son of Phrixus, became king of the Minyans. [122]

3.7.1.2 Jason's Expedition

Genealogical studies suggest that Jason's marriage to Medea, daughter of Aeetes, occurred around 1268 BC.

That year Jason went on an expedition to Colchis with the Minyans of Iolcus in Thessaly. [123]

Jason then lived in Corinth for ten years from 1247 BC. [124]

It is assumed that the original author of the Argonauts' expedition story was heard from Jason and completed his first epic poem during this time. [125]

The characters in this epic were Jason and the Minyans, who knew the route to Colchis. This is why the participants in Jason's expedition are called Minyans.

3.7.1.3 Cyzicus Incident

In 1248 BC, ship of the Minyans lodged in Cyzicus.

When Cyzicus, the son of Aeneus, the ruler of Cyzicus, learned that they were residents of Thessaly, where his ancestors had been driven out, he attacked them secretly, but was counterattacked and Cyzicus was killed in battle. [126]

Cyzicus belonged to the Doliones, who were renamed by the Pelasgians who were expelled from Thessaly in 1390 BC. [127]

Cyzicus' wife Cleite was the sister of Priam's wife Arisbe of Troy, and Cyzicus was Priam's brother-in-law. [128]

3.7.1.4 Completion date of the hero's expedition story

The murder of the brother-in-law of Priam of Troy by the Minyans who lived in Thessaly shocked the Greeks of the time.

The original author of the Argonauts expedition created a story based on this incident and Jason's expedition 20 years earlier, adding heroes from the time of the incident.

The story is estimated to have been completed between 1247 BC and 1237 BC, during Jason's time living in Corinth and before moving to Corcyra. [129]

3.7.2 Calydonian Boar Hunting Story

3.7.2.1 The first epic

Bacchylides of the 5th century BC, one of the nine poets of ancient Greece, tells of the battle between the Curetes and the Aetolians in Aetolia. [130]

The battle is between Calydon and Pleuron of Aetolia. [131]

The first epic poem without additional heroes was written by a contemporary poet who witnessed the battle firsthand.

3.7.2.2 Story with added heroes

In the story of the Argonauts' expedition, Theseus, son of Aegeus, joins the expedition from Troezen. [132]

In the story of Calydon's boar hunt, Theseus participates from Athens. [133]

Between these two events, Theseus emigrated from Troezen to Athens. [134]

These appear to be historical facts and consistent with other events.

This means that the original author of the two stories with additional heroes was the same person, who was probably close to Theseus.

3.7.3 Comparison of two stories

3.7.3.1 Characters in the story

The number of participants in the expedition story of the Argonauts (the story of the Calydonian boar hunt) recorded in extant historical sources is as follows:

Thessaly 27(10), Argolis 9(1), Attica 6(3), Arcadia 4(4), Laconia 3(5), Eleia 3(3), Messenia 3(3), Achaia 3(0), Aetolia 3(12), Boeotia 2(2), Locris 2(0), Phocis 2(0), Asia Minor 2(0), Acarnania 1(1), Euboea 1(0), Thrace 1(0).

The characters from the Argonauts' expedition story did not appear directly in the story of Calydonian boar hunt, but there are changes in the number of characters.

In other words, the original authors of the two stories were people who were well aware of the circumstances at the time.

3.7.3.2 Notable Persons

1) Castor and Polydeuces (Dioscuri)

In both stories, Tyndareus' two sons, Castor and Polydeuces, are joined by Lacedaemon. [135]

However, Dioscuri was born in Aetolia. They migrated to Sparta after the battle with Heracles and Hippocoon, and were living in Aetolia at the time of these two events.

It is likely that Castor and Polydeuces either did not appear or their hometowns were not mentioned in the original works of the two stories.

In 1115 BC, when the Minyans, driven from Lemnos, fled to Lacedaemon, they were accepted by the Lacedaemonians. The reason was that the ancestors of both were Argonauts. [136]

If this account is true, then the story of the Argonauts' expedition featuring Castor and Polydeuces would have been widely known around 1115 BC.

2) Talaus and Amphiaraus

Talaus and Amphiaraus appear in the story of the Argonauts' expedition, but Talaus does not appear in the story of Calydonian boar hunt. [137]

During a civil war in Argos, Talaus was killed by Amphiaraus, and his son Adrastus defected to Polybus of Sicyon. [138]

Also, five people from Argos participated in the story of the Argonauts' expedition before the civil war, but only Amphiaraus participated in the story of Calydonian boar hunt after the civil war.

This internal conflict occurred between the two stories, meaning the original author was familiar with the details of the conflict within Argos.

3.7.4 Historical Facts

The 2nd-century AD writer Apollodorus relates that the Argonauts' expedition and the Calydonian Boar Hunt occurred while Heracles was in Lydia. [138-1]

Heracles remained in Lydia for three years. [138-2]

The Cyzicus incident, which inspired the original author of the Argonauts' expedition story, occurred in 1248 BC.

The Aetolian strife, which inspired the original author of the Calydonian Boar Hunt story, occurred in 1246 BC.

Furthermore, Theseus, who participated in the former story from Troezen and in the latter story from Athens, migrated from Troezen to Athens in 1247 BC.

The dates of the Cyzicus incident and the Aetolian strife appear historically accurate, consistent with the genealogies of the figures involved and not conflicting with other events.

The source of Apollodorus' account is unknown, but it is presumed to be the 5th-century BC historian Pherecydes of Athens, whom Apollodorus frequently cites.

3.7.5 Story of the attack on Thebes by seven generals

In 1215 BC, Thebes was attacked by the Argives, led by Adrastus, son of Talaus. [139]

The participants in this battle are, of course, contemporaries, and if I draw up a genealogy, there will be no contradictions. It seems that the characters have not changed since the first story. It is extremely difficult for later poets to add contemporaries to their stories.

Ten years after this battle, the Epigoni attacked Thebes and occupied it. [140]

The latter battle is likely to be more dramatic, but we only know of fragments of the battle. Therefore, the story was written before the Epigoni invasion of Thebes in 1205 BC, and it is assumed that the author was someone familiar with the circumstances of Argos.

3.8 Genealogy Collector

Epics written before the Trojan War do not seem to have had a lineage that traced back to distant ancestors.

It is presumed that apart from epic poetry, there were people who traveled to various places and collected folklore and old records.

Before Linus gave writing to the Greeks, the records that remained in various places were written in Phoenician letters. In order to write them down, one had to know not only Pelasgic letters, but also Phoenician letters. This task would have been difficult to accomplish through a Phoenician interpreter, who would also have had knowledge of the Phoenician language.

It is assumed that this person was Orpheus, the son of Oeagrus, who wrote the "Genealogical Theory." [141]

Pherecydes of Athens compiled the writings of Orpheus in Athens and authored the ten-volume work Earth-born Men. This work was based on the genealogies recorded by Orpheus. [142]

The 1st century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus recognized Pherecydes of Athens as the greatest genealogist. [143]

It was in Eleusis that the works of Orpheus were kept.

Pherecydes is said to have been born before Pherecydes of Syros, who was born around the time of the 45th Olympiad, and Orpheus's writings are thought to have survived at least until around 600 BC.

Musaeus, son of Eumolpus of Eleusis, was a disciple of Orpheus and imitated his works. [144]

It is believed that Musaeus copied the writings of Orpheus and kept them at Eleusis.

Although some of Orpheus's writings were widely distributed, Pherecydes collected as much of Orpheus' writings as possible to complete his own work. [145]

4 Consideration of (Feature 1)

The Dark Ages are characterized by the fact that written sources are scarce, and the state of the period is unknown.

4.1 Short flowering period

The literary life of the ancient Greeks blossomed rapidly between the time the Greek-speaking peoples acquired their own written language and the period of the Great Confusion of Greece. But, that period was less than 100 years.

The period of Great Confusion began during the Trojan War, when the Thracians and Pelasgians invaded Boeotia, and the Thesprotians invaded Thessaly, displacing its inhabitants. [146]

It took 100 years from Linus's invention of Pelasgic letters until the period of Great Confusion, but the period of learning to write and the rise of literary activity was much shorter.

There are 21 known poets of that period, but that's about seven in one generation.

Even if there were people whose names have not been passed down to the present day, they were extremely small in number.

Many of those people's disciples were also caught up in the Great Confusion.

4.2 Reduction in literary activities

4.2.1 Undated authors

The number of authors of works cited in Deipnosophistae by the 2nd century AD grammarian Athenaeus of Naucratis was 654. Of these, 66 were of unknown date.

Not only Athenaeus, but ancient poets and writers quoted many of the writings of their predecessors.

Even if there were poets and writers from the Dark Ages, we would simply not be able to recognize them.

Important events and characters can be used as clues to determine the period in which an epic poem or story was written.

However, it seems that no important events occurred during the Dark Ages, when there was little interaction between regions.

Also, the lineage of the Dark Ages is broken, and even if there are characters, it is difficult to pinpoint the era.

I think it's not that there is a lack of written materials from the Dark Ages, but that we simply don't recognize them as being from the Dark Ages.

4.2.2 Works based on works in bloom

Just as Musaeus imitated Orpheus, Dark Ages poets and writers may have based their creative efforts on the works of their predecessors. [147]

Works based on the Trojan War and the Argonauts' expeditions are also thought to have been created.

Some of these works were lost without being transcribed, or some of them survived by being quoted in later works.

In 1277 BC, Amphitryon led an expedition to the Teleboans in northwestern Greece. [148]

In 1237 BC, Heracles, son of Amphitryon, went on an expedition to Ephyra in Thesprotia. [149]

These two expeditions were important events that caused large-scale migration of people, and it is presumed that epic poems were written about them.

Fragments of these expeditions remain in multiple historical sources. [150]

The epic poems about these expeditions became the subject matter of later works, or were partially quoted from, but the first works have not been passed down to modern times.

5 Consideration of (Feature 2)

The Dark Ages were characterized by a lack of interaction between regions and a stagnation of human activities.

Before the period of Great Confusion, the ancient Greeks were able to travel freely, as in the following example.

1) Melanippe, daughter of Aeolus, returned with her son Boeotus from the southern part of the Italian peninsula to Arne in Thessaly. [151]

2) Nestor, son of Neleus, visited Asclepius at Tricca in Thessaly from Pylus in Messenia. [152]

However, after a period of Great Confusion that lasted about 150 years, some regions were inhabited by people who had been forced from their land, and others were inhabited by the people who had driven them out.

The Greek world was divided between the Thesprotians, Dorians, and Carians, and free exchange between regions was severely restricted.

5.1 Conditions of Thessaly

In 1186 BC, the Thesprotians, who lived in northwestern Greece, invaded Thessaly and expelled its inhabitants. [153]

The exiles moved to Locris, Messenia and Athens. [154]

The Aeolians fled to Mt. Phricium near Thermopylae, and 60 years later migrated to Asia Minor and founded Cyme. [155]

Also, some of the people who lived in Thessaly continued to live there as penestai (serfs). [156]

5.2 Conditions of Boeotia

In 1188 BC, the Boeotians migrated to Arne of Thessaly, chased by the Thracians and Pelasgians. [157]

In 1126 BC, the Boeotians from Arne of Thessaly returned to Boeotia. [158]

The Boeotians drove out the Thracians and Pelasgians who had settled in Boeotia. [159]

In addition, the Boeotians drove out the Cadmeans, who had lived in Thebes since the time of Cadmus. [160]

5.3 Conditions of Peloponnesus

In 1112 BC, the Dorians, led by the Heracleidae, migrated from Doris to the Peloponnesus peninsula, displacing its inhabitants. [161]

The Achaeans, who lived in Argolis and Laconia, migrated to Achaia. [162]

The Ionians who lived in Achaia were chased by the Achaeans and migrated to Athens. [163]

The inhabitants of Messenia were also chased by the Dorians and migrated to Athens. [164]

Eleia is home to the descendants of those who migrated to Aetolia 215 years ago. [165]

Arcadia was the only part of the Peloponnesus peninsula that did not undergo any migration.

5.4 Conditions of Asia Minor

In 1170 BC, Orestes, son of Agamemnon, led an expedition to colonize Asia Minor. [166]

Later than the Achaeans, the Ionians began colonizing Asia Minor.

In 1073 BC, Neileus, son of Codrus of Athens, led the first group of settlers to settle in Miletus. [167]

The great migration of Achaeans and Ionians into Asia Minor ended in 1043 BC. [168]

5.5 Conditions of Aegean Sea

After the Trojan War, the Carians rose to power and took control of the Aegean Sea. The Carians expelled the Cretans from some islands of the Cyclades, and cohabited with the Cretans on some islands. [169]

6 Consideration of (Feature 3)

The genealogy of the Dark Ages contained a gap of approximately four generations.

6.1 Genealogy of Hippocrates, the father of medicine

The 5th century BC historian Pherecydes of Athens tells us that Hippocrates, who was born on the island of Cos, was the 20th generation from Heracles. [170]

This Hippocrates is the son of Heraclides, known as the father of medicine, and is estimated to have been born in 460 BC. [171]

If Hippocrates is the 20th generation from Heracles, the average between generations is 40.75 years, which is too large a difference between generations.

6.2 How to calculate the number of generations

It is assumed that Pherecydes did not count the number of generations from Hippocrates to Heracles, but calculated it using the following method.

Hippocrates was friends with Perdiccas, king of Macedonia, a descendant of Heracles. [172]

Pherecydes seems to have traced the following lineage from Perdiccas, a contemporary of Hippocrates, to Heracles.

Going back from Perdiccas, Alexander, Amyntas, Alcetas, Aeropus, Philip, Argaeus, Perdiccas. [173]

Furthermore, going back further, Tirimmus, Coenus, Caranus. [174]

Furthermore, going back further, Pheidon, Aristodamis, Merops, Thestius, Cissius, Temenus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus, Hyllus, Heracles. [175]

Perdiccas was the twentieth-generation descendant of Heracles.

However, Pausanias tells us that Cissius' son Medon also became king of Argos. [176]

Following Medon, son of Cissius, son of Temenus, there appears to have been a gap of four generations.

Hippocrates is therefore the 25th generation from Heracles, and the average between his generations is 32.6 years.

Herodotus calculated it as 100 years in 3 generations, so this is a generally reasonable number. [177]

6.3 Example of a missing genealogy

6.3.1 Leonidas of Sparta

Herodotus and Pausanias give the following account of the genealogy of Leonidas, king of Sparta, who died in battle at Thermopylae. [178]

Going back from Leonidas, Anaxandrides, Leon, Eurycrates, Anaxander, Eurycrates, Polydorus, Alcamenes, Teleclus, Archelaus, Agesilaus, Doryssus, Labotas, Echestratus, Agis, Eurysthenes, Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus, Hyllus, Heracles.

This Leonidas is estimated to have been born in 540 BC, so the average between generations from Heracles to Leotychides, the 20th generation, is 36.75 years, which is a slightly large difference between generations.

If there are four generations missing in the genealogy, the average between generations is 30.63 years, which is reasonable.

Agis was not the son of Eurysthenes, and it is estimated that there are four generations missing between them.

6.3.2 Patreus, founder of Patrae

Pausanias tells of the genealogy of Patreus, who founded Patrae in Achaia, as follows: [179]

Going back from Patreus, Preugenes, Agenor, Areus, Ampyx, Pelias, Aeginetes, Dereites, Harpalus, Amyclas, Lacedaemon.

Pausanias also tells us that Patreus founded Patrae in the time of Agis, son of Eurysthenes. [180]

Heracles is contemporary with Hippocoon, son of Oebalus, son of Cynortas, son of Amyclas, and contemporary with Aeginetes, according to the genealogy recorded by Pausanias.

Patreus is the 6th generation from Aeginetes, which coincides with Agis in Leonidas' lineage being the 6th generation from Heracles.

Like Leonidas' genealogy, Patreus's genealogy is estimated to be missing four generations.

In Patreus' genealogy, the names of the seven people between Amyclas, son of Lacedaemon, and Preugenes, father of Patreus, do not appear in any other genealogy and may have been random names.

The following genealogy is an example of such a genealogy.

1) Lydian Kings are the descendants of Agron, son of Ninus, son of Belus, son of Alcaeus, son of Heracles. [181]

The names of the four people after Heracles do not appear in any other genealogy and appear to have been given randomly.

2) Homer is the son of Maion, son of Apelles, son of Melanopus, son of Epiphrades, son of Euphemus, son of Philoterpes, son of Idmonides, son of Euklees, son of Dres, son of Orpheus, son of Oeagrus. [182]

The names of the six people between Orpheus and Melanopus do not appear in any other genealogy and appear to have been chosen randomly.

6.3.3 Leotychides of Sparta

There are also gaps in the genealogy of Leotychides, who commanded the navy during Xerxes' invasion of Greece as recorded by Herodotus. [183]

Leotychides was a king of Sparta from the Eurypontid dynasty.[184]

It is presumed that Leotychides' genealogy, like that of Leonidas, has a gap of four generations.

6.4 Genealogy with no missing pieces

There are only two complete lineages of the Dark Ages. It is the lineage of Athens and Corinth.

6.4.1 Athens

It is not clear if there are any missing Athens genealogies, since the genealogies of Athenian kings and archons as reported by the 2nd century BC chronicler Castor are used as a basis for determining if other genealogies are missing.

However, when I judge other genealogies and events based on the Athens genealogy, there are no contradictions.

Therefore, it is presumed that there are no gaps in the Athens genealogy.

6.4.2 Corinth

Before the Dorians, led by the Heracleidae, migrated to the Peloponnesus peninsula, Corinth was inhabited by the Aeolis. [185]

One of the Heracleidae, Aletes, son of Hippotas, captured Corinth with Melas, son of Antasus of Gonussa of Achaia. [186]

The inhabitants of Corinth were driven out by the Dorians, but the two sons of Propodas, Doridas and Hyantidas, who ruled the town, cohabited with Aletes and Melas. [187]

There is no lack in the lineage of Aletes' successors who became rulers of Corinth.

This seems to be due to the fact that, like Athens, people who knew writing continued to live in Corinth.

Corinth had the following connections with Athens.

1) Corinthus, son of Marathon

Marathon, son of Epopeus, migrated to Athens from Aegialeia (later Sicyon), married the daughter of Erechtheus, the sixth king of Athens, and had two sons, Sicyon and Corinthus. [188]

Corinthus migrated from Athens to Ephyraea, and the town became known as Corinth. [189]

2) Aletes, son of Hippotas

Aletes' father, Hippotas, was sentenced to ten years' exile for killing the prophet Carnus just before the return of the Heracleidae to Peloponnesus. [190]

During that time, Hippotas is believed to have lived in Athens with his son Aletes.

Antiochus, the father of Phylas, the father of Hippotas, was the founder of the Antiochis, one of the ten tribes of Athens. [191]

3) Melas, son of Antasus

Melas was a descendant of Gonussa, the daughter of Sicyon, son of Marathon, whose mother was the daughter of Erechtheus, the sixth king of Athens. [192]

6.5 Causes of omissions

6.5.1 Genealogy before omissions

The genealogy immediately preceding the omission dates from the time of the Dorians' invasion of Peloponnesus.

Their genealogy is thought to have been written down in stories that describe the events of this time, as well as in many epic poems.

6.5.2 Missing genealogy

It is not surprising that the lineages of Thessaly, occupied by the illiterate Thesprotians, and Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia, ruled by the Dorians, were not recorded.

However, the genealogy of Arcadia, whose inhabitants never moved, is also missing.

The reason for this seems to be that the Arcadia genealogy prior to the disappearance was recorded in a place other than Arcadia.

6.5.3 Genealogy after omissions

The genealogy is restored from a figure active in the late 10th century BC.

Around this time, exchanges between regions became active and people who could read and write were born in various places.

Or perhaps the genealogy was told by a poet who traveled from place to place.

7 End of the Dark Ages

7.1 Peloponnesus

Pompus, son of Simus, king of Arcadia, traded with the Aeginetans. Pompus gave his son the name Aeginetes as a sign of his friendship with the Aeginetans. [193]

Pompus was a descendant of Cypselus, king of Arcadia at the time of the Dorians' invasion of Peloponnesus. [194]

According to the genealogy, Pompus' son Aeginetes was born in 855 BC.

Trade between the Arcadians and Aeginetans in central Peloponnesus began earlier.

It is estimated that trade between the Aeginetans and the Primorsky region became active in the late 10th century BC.

It was through trade that Sostratus, son of Laodamas of Aegina, became wealthy. [195]

7.2 Asia Minor

Cyme in the Aeolis region began collecting port fees 300 years after its founding, later than other cities. [196]

Cyme was founded in 1126 BC. [197]

Therefore, it is estimated that Cyme decided to collect fees for the use of the port in 826 BC.

At that time, shipping was already well developed, and ports such as Phocaea near Cyme were busy with ships coming and going. [198]

There are two events that indicate the development of shipping around this time.

7.2.1 Phocaea's Ionian League membership

Phocaea was a town founded by the Phocis near Cyme, which they had settled from Locris. [199]

The residents of the two towns lived adjacent to each other before immigrating, and shared the same hometown.

However, as shipping developed, the two towns with good ports became enemies. [200]

Phocaea joined the Ionian League with a descendant of Codrus, king of Athens, as its king. [201]

7.2.2 Founding of Smyrna

The inhabitants of the Smyrna district of Ephesus founded Smyrna near the Meles River. [202]

Smyrna was located at the northern base of the Mimas Peninsula, opposite Chios.

Ephesus was located at the southern base of the Mimas Peninsula.

It is thought that the Ephesians, who had developed maritime transport and traded with the Troad and Aeolis, founded Smyrna so that they would not have to make a major detour around the Mimas Peninsula.

8 Summary

The ancient Greeks devised their own letters and used it to compose numerous stories and epics. However, this was accomplished by a small number of people over a short period of time.

There was a large-scale movement of people, and communication between the areas where the evicted people lived and the areas where the evicted people lived ceased.

After several generations, when the hostility between the regions faded, exchanges became more active and literary activities became more active.

End

Create:2023.10.3, Update:2025.10.15