background

Math reasoning is grounded in perceptual processes. Perceptual features of mathematical notations influence students' math reasoning.

Executive function skills are related to math performance and have been hypothesized as potential mechanisms by which perceptual cues influence math reasoning.

Students' eye movements provide information about their real-time cognitive processes. Gaze measures, such as speed and frequency, help indicate how perceptual cues shift students' attention to crucial structures within math expressions.

project goals

This research aims to provide a deeper insight into the mechanisms through which perceptual cues (i.e., color and spacing) effectively improve mathematical reasoning and performance. Specifically, we are examining the effects of perceptual cues on problem-solving performance and gaze movements, as well as how individuals' executive function skills moderate the effects of perceptual cues. We are manipulating three levels of color cues (i.e., congruent, neutral, incongruent) and three levels of spacing cues (i.e., congruent, neutral, incongruent) to create nine cue conditions (see Table 1).

• Congruent: The high-order operation is emphasized (e.g., 6÷3, 6 ÷ 3).

• Incongruent: The low-order operation is emphasized (e.g., 3-9, 3 - 9). 

• Neutral: Neither the low- nor high-order operation is emphasized. 

To address the aims of this project, we will conduct two experimental studies: 

• Study 1 aims to establish the feasibility of using open-source online tools to examine relations of perceptual cues, executive function, and math performance.
  Research activities occurred between September 2024 and May 2025. 

• Study 2 will examine the effects of executive function, attention, and perceptual cues on mathematics performance and learning.
  Research activities will occur between May 2025 and August 2025. 

Study 1 

Participants 

150+ undergraduate students were recruited through university’s online research platform. This study was implemented from September 2024 to September 2025. 

Study 1 Design and Procedure

Students participated in the study online by clicking the URL link.

• Students first completed three executive function tasks on the ACE-X platform and then solved 144 math problems under nine cue conditions (see Table 1). 

• During problem-solving, students' eye gaze coordinates were recorded by a webcam-based eye-tracker (i.e., WebGazer). 

Study 2

Participants 

We will recruit around 300 sixth and seventh-grade students. 

Study 2 Design and procedure

Students will solve arithmetic problems on an online platform under their teachers' supervision. 

• Students will complete the same activities described in study 1.