In our elementary school, there were five teachers (mathematics, geography, history, language, sport). Every teacher was in front of the students and presented all the necessary information for the topic we had to learn. For every subject we used a book and we had to copy the teachers writing from blackboard to the file. We had to read loud, from the textbooks and we had to learn most of the information by heart. The used devices were blackboard and picture boards.
It was the same process of learning as it was in the elementary school. What changed was the part of reading loud. The process of face-to-face teaching turned to self-centered learning and we started to use computers for technical drawing and construction. At the end of the college, we started project oriented learning, especially in technical subjects. The used devices were blackboard, overhead projector and computer.
When I started my profession as teacher in the vocational school in 1992, there were still the same education requirements as known from the future. Face to face teaching, learning by heart and copying the information from the blackboard. All my teaching preparations I had to write on overhead foils, in four colors. In the workshop and in the laboratories we already used computers for machine programming, construction and automation. 10 years ago, there were only two computer rooms for communication. Now we arrived in the 21st century of education and have to change almost all education requirements for a future education.
I remember the lessons in math. We had to cite the multiplication tables from one to ten, forwards and backwards. Than followed worksheets to fill in multiplications, much more difficult to the basic. Ten multiplications as fast as you can. Another exercise was that one student after another announced a multiplication and one student had to write the result of the multiplication on the blackboard without a long time of thinking. Every Friday we took a timed test presenting the learning progress of the student. Twenty calculations in 60 seconds. When time was over, we exchanged the paper with the neighbor to correct the calculations.
The stimulus was unsolved math equations, and the response was quick thinking to solve as many problems as possible. The teacher, who observed the behavior, could see the student learning progress and the ability to solve the problem. The positive reinforcement was the teacher’s praise, when solving all problems correctly and that one of the classmates reviewed our work. The negative reinforcement was your extra homework to train your math basics.
To look at the pro, students are able to memorize math facts that are then building blocks for more difficult problems in later classes. This method leaves no room for thinking about how students get to an answer. Only one answer is correct. Positive reinforcement could take the form of verbal praise, good grades, less homework, etc.
To look at the con, there is no comprehension to solve problems when building blocks of more complex structure. These activities require lower order thinking skills. Negative reinforcement could take the form of verbal correction, poor grades, extended homework, etc.
When I think of the technical subject piston machines, I remember the teacher who was quite strait in his instruction of the motor. It was a four stroke motor and we had to design the pressure diagram for every single stroke. No deviation in the diagram was allowed. The picture had to be as it was in the book. For some weeks, we designed some diagrams to reach the precision for a perfect diagram of a four stroke motor. The function of control was on the peer that also gave a grade upon your work when we swept and exchanged the paper. Finally, we were tested in that case and we had to calculate and to create a pressure diagram for a motor.
The stimulus and the motivation was first to calculate it correct and then to create a perfect pressure diagram for this task. The teacher who observed the process and checked the designing process during the week could realize the progress of learning. The positive reinforcement was the teacher’s praise, when solving all problems correctly and being proud when the peer reviewed the work. The negative reinforcement was to train as long as you are able to fulfill the requirements for the teacher and maybe being ridiculous, because of not able to fulfill the requirements.
To look at the pro, students are able to memorize every step of calculation and the designing process for more difficult problems to solve. This method leaves no room for thinking about how students get to an answer. Only one answer is correct. Positive reinforcement could take the form of verbal praise, good grades, less homework, etc.
To look at the con, there is no comprehension to solve problems when working out the task of more complex structure. These activities require lower order thinking skills. Negative reinforcement could take the form of verbal correction, poor grades, extended homework, etc.
When reflecting the situation on teaching machine programming (CNC), how to structure the process of programming. The fundamental of programming of a work piece contour includes a sequence of provided and predefined commands. There is no difference between simple and difficult work piece contours when creating a program, just more commands necessary. The steps of beginning and follow up steps are always the same structure. When the learner is able to program a simple contour it requires just a repeating of the predefined commands and the steps of programming. Because of learning, the learner should be able to solve more complex work piece contours for a machining process.
The stimulus and motivation is to be able to program complex work piece contours and being as fast as possible and accurate as possible. As observing teacher you have the ability to guide the learner and realize the learning progress. The positive reinforcement is the teacher’s praise, a good grade and being proud of the knowledge, when solving all problems correctly. The negative reinforcement is to train as long as you are able to fulfill the requirements for a good grade, an applicable knowledge and maybe being ridiculous in the class, because of not able to fulfill the requirements.
To look at the pro, students are able to memorize every step of programming even for more difficult problems to solve. This method leaves no room deviating answers. Only one answer is correct, because of the predefined work piece contour. Positive reinforcement could take the form of verbal praise, good grades, less homework, being proud to be the best in class, etc.
To look at the con, these activities require lower order thinking skills. Negative reinforcement could take the form of verbal correction, poor grades, extended homework, poor knowledge, etc.
Constructivism in the early stage of school in an example applied in mathematics. When the topic is calculating length, area and volume, we have to use mathematical formulas to apply. Most of the children have no idea how to apply formulas, what does a formula and their terms say. Taking a volume formula of a prism with its formula V=a * a * a = a³ that will not have any statement for children, it makes sense to use a practical example with a volume model. Presenting the basic surface as fundamental and the additional sides, needed to build a volume. This shows practical application and experience in connection with applying the formula.
The Zone of Proximal Development is where one has almost achieved complete mastery. The introduction in applying formula is ZPD. The confidence of the learner who still may lack a few skills. Teachers have to provide assistance and help students to get these skills. Students have to start thinking in the way of how to applying formula.
Some students do not have prior experience with volume, three-dimensional constructs and have difficulties to understand, because of learning something completely new. In the process of scaffolding, students face these difficulties and get the required skills. The scaffolding strategy is to make students to understand problem situations and the teacher leads the student to correct application. The students provide the answers for the application process and apply it systematically. The student work in the try and error mode.
A good social constructivist strategy is to allow collaborations. Students work together to choose a appropriate formula for the given task. Students can move free in the classroom to ask whom they think that he can help and assist when a problem occurs including teacher. They can review the calculus from their peers and are actively engaged in the learning process. They construct knowledge through collaboration.
Constructivism in the early stage of school in an example applied in physics. When the topic is speed, we have to use mathematical formulas to calculate. Most of the adolescent have no idea how to apply formulas, what does a formula, and their terms say. One example to introduce speed is, to measure out a determined length in the classroom or the corridor. One student moves from the start to the finish line while the other one measures the time needed of the distance. The same terms are applied in the formula of speed.
The Zone of Proximal Development is where one has almost achieved complete mastery. The introduction in speed is ZPD. The confidence of the learner who still may lack a few skills. Teachers have to provide assistance and help students to get these skills. Students have to start thinking in the way of length and time.
Some students have not prior experience with the term of speed and have difficulties, because of learning something completely new. In the process of scaffolding, students face these difficulties and get the required skills. The scaffolding strategy is to make students to understand problem situations and the teacher leads the student to correct application. The students provide the answers for the application process and apply it systematically. The student work in the try and error mode.
A good social constructivist strategy is to allow collaborations. Students work together to experience speed. Students can move free in the classroom to ask whom they think that he can help and assist when a problem occurs including teacher. They can review the experiment from their peers and are actively engaged in the learning process. They construct knowledge through collaboration.
Our apprentices attend the Computer Aided Design (CAD) course in their 3rd year of apprenticeship, prepared with the basics of technical drawing (pencil and paper, drawing work pieces for the production process with all their technical applications) of two previous years. The course lasts for 10 weeks. In the first week (5 hours per week), they receive an introduction of the CAD software. With this skills and knowledge, the students have ability to apply it practically, for the next 4 weeks. In this four weeks, the teacher just guide and lead through the lacking software knowledge. The knowledge of the drawing basics are more or less prevalent by the students. They also have the possibility to work together and help each other by lacking knowledge.
After 5 weeks, they are ready for an extended project with more parts for assembly to a complex group of work pieces. The project includes the single 3D models, the assembly with simple motion sequence and the technical drawings for the manufacturing process at the machine. When starting the project, there also starts a competition between the students. Who is the first ready with his project? Who is the one with the most acquired knowledge that is asked by the peer, because most of them do not want to ask the teacher for guidance? Who gets the best graduation?
The Zone of Proximal Development is where one has almost achieved complete mastery. The introduction in computer science is ZPD. The confidence of the learner who still may lack a few skills. Teachers have to provide assistance and help students to get these skills. Students have to start thinking in the way of construction and manufacturing.
Some students have not prior experience with Computer science and difficulties, because of learning something completely new. In the process of scaffolding, students face these difficulties and get the required skills. The scaffolding strategy is to make students to understand problem situations and the teacher leads the student to correct application. The students provide the answers for the application process and apply it systematically. The student work in the try and error mode.
A good social constructivist strategy is to allow collaborations. Students work together to create a work piece, a drawing or the assembly. Students can move free in the classroom to ask whom they think that he can help and assist when a problem occurs including teacher. They can review the project from their peers and are actively engaged in the learning process. They construct knowledge through collaboration.
One example of a learning scenario that is well suited to the use of cognitivism is teaching students to find the area of a complex shape. A complex shape is composed of two or more simple shapes (e.g., squares, rectangles, triangles, circles, etc.). Students will be able to “Find the area of complex shapes composed of simple shapes. This applied technique solve practical and other mathematical problems. It is a real-world scenario in the fundamentals of students learning.
There are multiple steps required to find the area of a complex shape. First, determine the simple shapes for making up the complex shape. To draw dashed lines to indicate the border to adjacent shapes is helpful. Second, determine the length of the sides a simple shape. Third, find the area of each simple shape by applying the appropriate formula. Finally, add together the areas of the simple shapes to find the area of the complex shape. The sum of all the simple shape should be the result of the complex shape.
This is a well-suited learning scenario for cognitivism use. It is teacher-centered and requires the learner of breaking down a complex problem into smaller parts to solve it, and requires the teacher to scaffold students’ learning.
An example of a learning scenario of cognitivism in the technical education is how to process CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing), a combination of CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CNC Computer Numerically Controlled – Machine). The student are computer literate and have already heard about CAM, but most of them did not apply practically. It requires some steps to learn.
The teacher, who is the learning guide, directs the students to find out what is CAM needed for? What are the components of CAM? Where is CAM applied? The process of finding the fundamentals forces students to an active engagement in the classroom. It is also applied by the fundamentals of CAD and CNC. When the facts are collected, the teacher presents the sequence of steps to achieve an appropriate result, applicable for production.
First: Starting with construction the 3D model of the work piece, the students are guided through every step by the teacher. The result is a well created module on the computer. Second: Guided introduction in the CAM software step by step. Third: creating the CAM process to manufacture the work piece. Finally: simulate the process on the computer.
The concrete cognitive phase takes place when the students start their practical phase of creating a CAM program. Different work pieces to model and to program with CAM. There is no right or wrong factor. The only result is an appropriate program for the manufacturing process and depicted by the simulation program of the process. The simulation is running or not running. If not, the student has to find and correct mistakes in the process. The students feel free to move around the classroom an communicate with the colleagues for achieving a final result in their work, and of course, the teacher is present to support in the application process.
We apply cognitive learning in multimedia learning when words and pictures present a mental representation. Program and multimedia instructional messages use presenting material and consisting of words and pictures. Pictures can be statically or dynamically e.g. video or animation.
Examples are Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). The participants are ultimately responsible for their learning. The learner chooses a course of its interest (self-paced or guided) and started learning. There are some prevailing rules to follow that a course can be positive completed. The topics a separated in chapters or modules that a learner is able to learn and apply the material provided. At the end of almost every module follows a graduated assessment (multiple-choice questions, writing an essay, creating a program …) where the learner demonstrates the acquired knowledge.
The advantage of that kind of learning, in the digital age of learning is that the learner is able to acquire knowledge in any kind of interest, for private or professional career, from home, in a comfortable environment and in a convenient timeframe, suitable for every learner.
The active learning process occurs when a learner engages three cognitive processes:
Formal learning experiences: Online course (MOOCs) Instructional Design
I would like to write about my formal learning experiences in my current activity, learning theories.
Self-Concept: This course made me to explore a new scientific field. It was the first time attending an “Instructional Design” course, so I was self-directed as I was learning something new and I was trying to find more resources.
Experience: eLearning was the new Field to explore. I was confronted with new topics in the field of education, especially used in eLearning. There are learning theories I have not heard by name before, but recognized that I already apply them practically in school. An additional fact is, how widely stretched this theory is and how structured. The second is to create a webpage, which I did not before.
Readiness to Learn: With the recognition of the experience, the deeper inside and the progress I made, the more curious I was to gain further knowledge in this course. I want to know more about learning theories and the practical application. To learn creating webpages and the tool to do with, I am eager to do.
Orientation to Learning: With the overview and the insight of learning theories I could transfer the knowledge to my personal possibilities in application at school. Exploring new tools for application, in collaboration with the learned theories, is excited.
Motivation to Learn: Every week I was learning a new theory, I was curious to learn more about it. I am looking forward for the day, that I am able create a professional webpage. After I completing this course, I will continue to finish the micro master series.
It was a successfully learning experience as I got the basics skills in Learning Theories in the field of Instructional Design.
Pappas, C. (2013). The Adult Learning Theory - Andragogy - of Malcolm Knowles. elearning Industry retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles
It describes a project at our vocational school of metal techniques, where students in the 4rd year of apprenticeship had to work on a life work situation.
The project includes the subjects of Mathematics, Material Technology, Technical Drawing, Practical Work and Laboratory.
The class consists of 24 students who learn the profession “cutting technician”.
We formed two groups (two group leaders) with the same assignment of creating and manufacturing a mechanical vice. The basic information is a technical drawing with all the single parts and the provided dimensions of the vice. This information was a guide for the students, how the vice could look at the end. One important fact was that the students had to rethink and try to improve the function of the device. That was an extended part where the practical application had to be reflected and a reconstruction of single parts where necessary. The teachers played the role of an observer, supporter, guide and consultant during the project phase.
Daily short meetings: situation report (group leaders), ongoing process, time management, general project questions, teacher’s information.
Daily work reports: What was the work and how long did it take to work on it.
Portfolio:
The project included “Authentic Assessment”, summarized the subjects, and topics learned in school, practiced by the implemented situation of practical application. This situation mirrored the real life problem simulated by inducing an assignment in a life situation.
The project included “Project based learning” (PBL), because of student-centered pedagogy that involved a dynamic classroom approach. The focus was to investigate and respond to a complex question, challenge, or problem.
The project included “Experiential learning” through the experience of learning during the process. They learned from "natural consequences" of decisions they made during the experience, and the instructor-facilitated students' learning and ensured students to reflect on experiences and understanding.
The Project included Formative Assessment throughout the project process e.g. work piece produced, tool application, calculation, protocols,…
The project included Summative Assessments as every subject and a portfolio assessment.
© 2017, Andreas Holzer - Learning Theories