The following is a brief overview of some consequences of large-scale modifications to gravity—without recourse to exotic matter or new fundamental interactions—addressing certain notable controversies in astrophysics.
4.1 The Virial Theorem and Zwicky's missing mass
4.2 Arp controversy and Gravitational Redshift
4.3 Gravitational Lensing.
4.4 Jean's length
4.5 Pioneer Anomaly.