Critical Intersectionality Glossary

Critical Social Theory

Bodies of knowledge and sets of institutional practices that actively grapple with the central questions facing groups of people. These groups are differently placed in specific political, social, and historic contexts characterized by injustice. What makes critical social theory “critical” is its commitment to justice, for one’s own group and/or for that of other groups, and its engagement in examining what contributes to patterns of injustice and how these can be disrupted.

Intersectionality

Analysis claiming that systems of race, social class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, nation, and age form mutually constructing features of social organization, which create interacting systems of power which shape society and create unequal opportunities sand barriers, shape peoples’ experiences and, in turn are shaped by them. (Collins & Bilge).

Hancock, 92013) discusses “paradigm intersectionality”, defined as a “justice-oriented analytical framework for examining persistent sociopolitical problems that emerge from race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other sociopolitical issues that are interlocking, process-driven categories of differences”. This leads to conceptualizing multiple causal paths that can simultaneously lead to the same outcome.

Types of intersectionality (McCall): Intersectionality can focus on intersectionalities:

• within one category,
• on relationships between categories, or
• endeavor to eliminate categories.
• Some approaches also examine different steps in oppression and privilege and pathways to different consequences.

Five dimensions of intersectional complexity (Hancock, 2013)

• Complexity within categories (Diversity Within)
• Complexity between categories (Categorical multiplicity, Categorical Intersection)
• Complexity in a given historical moment as well as over time (Time Dynamics),
• Complexity in terms of how categories like race, gender, class, sexual orientation are shaped by dynamic processes engaged in by individuals, groups, and institutions (Individual-Institutional Dynamics)

Bowleg discusses time as well, mostly in relation to the timing and sequencing of consequences that people experience, and how they are pro-active or otherwise struggling, coping with these.

Domains Of Power (PH Collins, Drawing On Foucault)

• Disciplinary domain of power—a way of ruling that relies on bureaucratic hierarchies and techniques of surveillance. These organize society and oppression. Social processes and how social systems constrain and facilitate interactions and well-being. Day to day group and organizational mechanisms that continually constitute social locations, categories, and interpersonal and intrapersonal experiences.
• Hegemonic domain of power—a form or mode of social organization that uses ideas and ideology to absorb and thereby depoliticize oppressed groups’ dissent. Alternatively, the diffusion of power throughout the social system where multiple groups policy one another and suppress one another’s dissent. Some refer to this as cultural domain. Explains and justifies oppression. Also provides meanings.
• Interpersonal domain of power--discriminatory practices of everyday lived experiences that because they are so routine typically go unnoticed or remain unidentified. Strategies of everyday racism and everyday resistance occur in this domain. Person to person interactions within different contexts—includes enacting perceptions and attitudes, communication and interaction patterns, how power influences all of these
• Structural domain of power--a constellation of organized practices in employment, government, education, law, business, and housing that work to maintain an unequal and unjust distribution of social resources. Unlike bias and prejudice, which are characteristics of individuals, the structural domain or power operates through the laws and policies of social institutions.

Intrapersonal Domain

How people experience and internalize their social locations and social categories, influenced by their positions within social structures, and their individual characteristics, including developmental and biological factors

Crenshaw discusses a structural and representational intersectionality domain, similar to two of the above.

• Structural intersectionality—highlights the contextual factors that produce an inability to obtain legal remedies that are presumed to be available to legal subjects.
• Representational intersectionality, ways that people who straddle multiple social locations are culturally constructed

Political Intersectionality

Crenshaw includes also political intersectionality, which she defines as the degree to which using a single member to serve as a prototype for policy remedies prevents the comprehensive representation, and by extension, remedy, of the obstacles created by the drivers of racial, gender, class, and sexuality disparities. [so this one is about remedies, or analyses of efforts to create change, which Hancock later extends both to activism and other approaches]

Many also imply a temporal domain, focused on change over time—from the past, historical analyses, and how things happen in time in the current, and working for change in the future.

Oppression

The multiple, systemic ways that people face barriers to participation in society, exercising rights and taking advantage of opportunities. Mechanisms that create and sustain oppression are multiple, work together, and are often not recognized (e.g., powerlessness, marginalization, exploitation, cultural hegemony, violence [I. M. Young]).

Types of oppression (drawn mostly from Iris Marion Young):

Exploitation

Exploitation is when those with more power benefit from the labor or resources produced by others. This includes very overt activities like human trafficking and slavery, but also using people’s labors to produce profit without compensating them fairly--factors like huge disparities in salaries between those at the top of corporations, compared with those whose labor produces the goods or services from which the corporation benefits. Other examples include a focus on making money no matter who is hurt in the process.

Violence

Violence is probably the most obvious and visible form of oppression, when violence is overt and physical, but can be insidious when hidden and/or subtle. Violence is intended to control people directly, through threats and doing harm, or just removing those considered less worthy or dangerous. Some would argue that there are also systems of violence, in which those with devalued characteristics are more often punished more and differently for “offenses”, for instance in schools or the criminal justice system.

Marginalization

Marginalization occurs when people, ideas, groups are considered less important, confining them to lower social standings, pushing them to the edges of society. Overall, these are processes of exclusion, maybe worse than exploration because people may not be able to participate as labor in society. It is also more difficult to have any sense of belonging, influence in decision-making, or a voice (either on one’s own behalf or in important decisions) from outside of the “center”.

Cultural Domination

Cultural domination (some call this cultural imperialism) happens when the norms and values of more powerful people and cultures govern the entire society, thus advantaging those who understand and are comfortable with these. They help to define what is “normal” and people who do not fit these are then deemed abnormal or deficient in some way. Also, people not able to fit these norms and values comfortably have to spend a lot of extra energy trying to “fit in”.

Powerlessness

Powerlessness arises from many sources, leading to some people feeling and acting more powerful and others feeling and acting less powerful. This includes having more devalued characteristics within society, lower access to quality education to enable one to participate or have a voice in society, and perhaps most difficult to address is indoctrination and internalization of devalued characteristics so that people believe that some are more superior and others more inferior. Powerless includes internalized negative images and multiple forces that silence and demean those with devalued characteristics.

Matrix of Domination

The overall organization of hierarchical power relations for any society. Any specific matrix of domination has

1. a particular arrangement of intersecting systems of oppression, e.g., race, social class, gender, sexuality, citizenship status, ethnicity and age; and
2. a particular organization of its domains of power, e.g., structural, disciplinary, hegemonic, and interpersonal (Collins).

Critical Consciousness

A process of continuous self-reflection and action to discover and uncover how we, our approaches to social work practice, and our environments have been and continue to be shaped by societal assumptions and power dynamics: an essential tool to help us to recognize, understand and work to change the social forces that shape our societies, ourselves, and the lives of our clients and work for social justice. Elements of critical consciousness include:

• Reflecting on oneself historically, in relation to others, including an awareness of intersectionality—how one’s race, gender, class, and other group identities simultaneously work together to create one’s perception & experiences (Freire, 1972 p.16; Collins 2000);
• Developing “structural perception” – the ability to see or “unveil” the social, political, and cultural forces that shape our everyday experiences (Freire, 1985);
• Developing “critical epistemology”: - a radical curiosity re: the nature of knowledge & how different truth claims support social inequalities (Freire, 1972 p.18; Agger, 1998).
• A commitment to learning dialogically in specific contexts with others (Freire, 1972);
• A commitment to ethical actions to end injustice (Freire, 1972).

Micro-Aggressions

Casual degradation of any socially marginalized group, such as the poor or the disabled. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". Some argue these concepts contribute to a culture of victimhood. Often described as three forms.

• microassault: an explicit racial derogation; verbal/nonverbal; e.g. name-calling, avoidant behavior, purposeful discriminatory actions.
• microinsult: communications that convey rudeness and insensitivity and demean a person's racial heritage or identity; subtle snubs; unknown to the perpetrator; hidden insulting message to the recipient of color.
• microinvalidation: communications that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person belonging to a particular group.

"Non-Conscious" Ideology

Widely shared beliefs within a society about why things happen as they do. Most of these are incorporated into routine expectations about events and relationships, and those who hold them may not be aware of them. Such beliefs help to sustain the social order (e.g., Blacks or women are weak and unable to care for themselves).

Positionality

One’s locations along the various axes of social group memberships imposed by society and associated with differential access to power (e.g., ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, religion, economic class, gender, disability status, age. Can include immigration status and others in different contexts). Culturally defined and imposed status categories.

• The impacts of positionalities vary from context to context.
• Visibility influences their impacts.

Power

Many other terms are also relevant for different kinds of power (in addition to domains of power listed earlier).

• Position power is a type of structural power, deriving from one’s formal roles, and positions within systems of hierarchies, within organizations, for instance.
• The power to control definitions and understandings.
• Expert power arises from earned knowledge and skills, recognized by others
• Reward and punishment power arises from control of resources and the ability to withhold or punish those with less status and resources
• Reference power arises from mutual respect, in which people aspire to acquire characteristics in an admired group or person.
• Collective power—arises from working with others
• Power over, vs power with, power to do (get things done), power within.

Praxis

Iterative processes of theorizing, action, reflection, action. Using one's own agency as situated knowers to identify and deepen knowledge of your own standpoint and to use knowledge gained from practice to inform theory and vice versa.

Privilege

An unearned advantage, immunity, permission, right, or benefit granted to or enjoyed by an individual because they are members of a category of people that is accorded higher societal status, often non-conscious. A privilege is not a right and in some cases can be revoked. For example, in some countries driving on publicly maintained roads is a privilege; in others it is a right. If one violates certain rules, driving privileges can be revoked, and if one causes harm to another while exercising the right to travel just compensation may be sought and awarded. Most of us have privilege related to one or more of our social categories, and this is often invisible. Unexamined and unrecognized privilege makes it difficult to recognize oppression that others experience. It also makes it difficult for us to be allies across categories. McIntosh noted two major kinds of privilege. One type are benefits that everyone should have, but that some are denied. We should be working to have these privileges work for everyone. The other are circumstances in which some people benefit because they do not have to contend with situations that disadvantage them (surveillance, violence, marginalization, exploitation, etc). These we should recognize and work to eliminate them.

Boundary

A dividing line or border. Marks “territories” or indicates that differences exist on either side of that boundary “line”, about purposes, roles, domains, perspectives, functions, experiences, types of power, ways of accomplishing something. Boundaries can be structural, cultural (about different beliefs and systems of meanings), different modes of operating, between and among people and types of people, and within a person (across roles, older and newer modes of thinking and goals, emotions vs rational thinking, etc.). There is always differences across boundaries, and the potential for conflict (from the need to recognize and navigate differences, to more difficult, serious and protracted struggles.

Collective Identity

The shared sense of belonging to a group, whereby the identity of the group becomes part of the individual’s identity.

Conflict

Conflict is a situation in which there are opposing demands or ideas, that may or may not have some compatible elements. Engaging constructively with conflict is an especially necessary when there are power and experience differences at play (and there always are). There is always the potential for learning and change from conflict, and change almost always produces conflict—between the old and the new, at minimum. When differences are not encouraged, recognized and engaged, those with more power will likely dominate, and assumptions will go unexamined.

Conflict is an important, expected, and necessary component of all interactions, planning and working for change, especially if one is working for social justice, using socially just processes. Navigating boundaries and faultlines within and across groups are important aspects in all social. work. Most of these issues occur both within and across groups.

• Boundaries represent any kind of structural or cultural division.
• The term faultlines may be used when the potential for fractures or tremors, or earthquakes may be possible across those boundaries.

Conflict can arise from intersectionality alliances and tensions, processes that are normal within group development, differences in ideologies or preferred strategies, navigating across many kinds of boundaries, and a whole variety of other forces. What is perceived as destructive conflict and skills and approaches in how to navigate it may vary substantially by gender, cultural differences, and sources and types of power present.

Boundaries can be across organizational components (vertical and/or lateral), across group and organizational memberships (representing different constituencies, agencies, departments), or boundaries of identity and perspectives. Sources of differences and potential tension can be structural, cultural, procedural, or many others.

As noted, conflict is a necessary stage in the development of groups, and allows group members to work out ways to handle differences in a group. Without acknowledgement of conflict and procedures for using conflict to further group goals, member differences are suppressed, and usually those with the most position power dominate. Groups and individuals that cannot use conflict to learn and problem-solve will be less effective.

Consciousness

Process of bringing into awareness the multiple aspects of one’s experiences including historical, environmental, cultural, interpersonal and intrapersonal. The quality or state of being aware especially of something within oneself. The state or fact of being conscious of an external object, state, or fact. Awareness; especially : concern for some social or political cause.

Consciousness-Raising

Experiences that help individuals or groups become more aware of the workings of political, social, economic, and/or cultural issues in their everyday lives. (PH Collins) The activity of seeking to make people more aware of personal, social, or political forces.

Contested Ideological Terrain

A theoretical framework that looks at cultural practices that reinforce both the existing power dynamics (and potentially different ideologies within these) and the agency of human groups and individuals that challenge those existing frameworks and understandings.

Culture

Behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, language, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought.

• Categorical Approaches--examination of distinctive traits that categorize a culture, e.g., language, values, assumptions and expectations about appropriate behavior and relationships, beliefs about what is important, social institutions and structures.
• Transactional Approaches--recognizes that how people behave and perceive the world and organize their institutions, are changed by the context of a particular environment or situation, and by the key characteristics of others involved in relevant transactions. Would also incorporate analysis of...
• The "culture" of the setting or context (e.g., norms, roles, interaction and decision-making styles)

Decentering

The unseating of those who occupy centers of power, as well as the knowledge that defends their power. Typically applied to elite White male power, the concept of decentering can apply to any type of group-based power. (PH Collins)

Also often refers to interrogating “taken-for-granted” meanings, from the perspectives of those closer to the margins in any social system, and creating new, more inclusive meanings, of those that reflect perspectives from those marginalized in particular systems.

Displace from the center or from a central position. Remove or displace (the individual human subject, such as the author of a text) from a primary place or central role. (Google)

Deconstruction

In its most general sense, a constellation of methodologies used to dismantle truths or perceived norms. Deconstructive methodologies generally use three steps: identifying the binaries or oppositions that structure an argument; revealing how the dependent, negative term creates conditions for the existence of the positive term; and replacing binaries with more fluid concepts. The goal is to transcend binary logic by simultaneously being both and neither or the binary terms. (PH Collins) A method of critical analysis of philosophical and literary language that emphasizes the internal workings of language and conceptual systems, the relational quality of meaning, and assumptions implicit in forms of expression.

Emotional Labor

Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job (or contribute to classrooms). More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their emotions during interactions with customers, co-workers and superiors (or classmates and faculty). Emotional labor is also needed in caretaking, and in navigating privilege and oppression

Historical Distrust

When a group has a history of exploitation, violence, dominance, cultural imperialism, systematic disempowerment, or other forms of oppression, ordinary distrust becomes much stronger and deeper between groups. Through processes of collective memory (and maybe via epigenetic processes), experiences and feelings about past experiences are passed through the generations. This can also include historical trauma (see collective memory in glossary

Collective Memory And Historical Trauma

Many forms of evidence are accumulating that experiences of mass oppressive events (e.g., colonialism, slavery, war, genocide, cultural destruction) exhibit higher levels of traumatic reactions and related consequences (physical, psychological and social) over many generations. These contribute substantially to current disparities. Thus current experiences of oppressive circumstances are frequently compounded by intergenerational transmission of historical trauma and on-going distrust and compensatory coping strategies. These can greatly inform work across group boundaries, but can also be very difficult to understand and navigate.

• Patterns of collective memory pass on not just memories, but also frameworks for understanding past and current events, and emotional reactions to them. Traumatic reactions can also be passed on, through collective memory, socialization, and probably epigenetics. Cognitive schemas, emotional processing, and physical reactions are all part of traumatic reactions.

Perspective Taking

Perspective Taking the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an alternative point-of-view, such as that of another individual, or from different social locations.

Resistance

“An act or instance of opposition; An opposing or retarding force; An underground organization” (Merriam Webster, 1998). In psychology, “resistance” is used to describe personality factors that we use to both avoid and cope with change and stress (Wade & Tavris, 1998). In literature on privilege, “resistance” is used to describe an individual or group’s difficulty to reflect upon and understand the inherent benefits of their position in the social matrix (Fine et al, 1997; McIntosh, 1989). In literature on oppression, “resistance” describes the subversive ways in which people who are oppressed exert dignity and agency in the presence of dehumanizing circumstances (Kesselman, et. al, 1997)

• In systems, ecological, and field theories, “resistance” is a force that helps organisms and social systems to remain stable, to retain homeostasis.
• The refusal to accept or comply with something; the attempt to prevent something by action or argument. The ability not to be affected by something, especially adversely. (Google)
• A psychological defense mechanism wherein a patient rejects, denies, or otherwise opposes the therapeutic efforts of a psychotherapist. (Merriam-Webster)

Rights

The power or liberty to which one is justly entitled or a thing to which one has a just claim. Rights serve as rules of interaction between people, and, as such, they place constraints and obligations upon the actions of individuals or groups (for example, if one has a right to life, this means that others do not have the liberty to murder him; if one has a right to a free public education, this may impose on someone else the requirement to pay taxes to pay the costs of that education). A moral or legal entitlement to have or obtain something or to act in a certain way. (Google)

Subjugated Knowledge

The secret knowledges generated by oppressed groups. Such knowledge typically remains hidden because revealing it weakens its purpose of assisting them in dealing with oppression. Subjugated knowledges that aim to resist oppression constitute oppositional knowledges (Collins).

Surveillance

A strategy of control whereby people’s words and actions are constantly watched and recorded (Collins). This term originally comes from Foucault as does disciplinary as Collins uses this.