These definitions may vary some from scholar to scholar, within different disciplines, and in practice, but we have included some examples below.
Bodies of knowledge and sets of institutional practices that actively grapple with the central questions facing groups of people. These groups are differently placed in specific political, social, and historic contexts characterized by injustice. What makes critical social theory “critical” is its commitment to justice, for one’s own group and/or for that of other groups, and its engagement in examining what contributes to patterns of injustice and how these can be disrupted.
Analysis claiming that systems of race, social class, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, nation, and age form mutually constructing features of social organization, which create interacting systems of power which shape society and create unequal opportunities sand barriers, shape peoples’ experiences and, in turn are shaped by them. (Collins & Bilge).
Hancock, 92013) discusses “paradigm intersectionality”, defined as a “justice-oriented analytical framework for examining persistent sociopolitical problems that emerge from race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other sociopolitical issues that are interlocking, process-driven categories of differences”. This leads to conceptualizing multiple causal paths that can simultaneously lead to the same outcome.
Types of intersectionality (McCall): Intersectionality can focus on intersectionalities:
Five dimensions of intersectional complexity (Hancock, 2013)
Bowleg discusses time as well, mostly in relation to the timing and sequencing of consequences that people experience, and how they are pro-active or otherwise struggling, coping with these.
the incorporation of multiple forms of diversity and identity into research questions and practice, but has the effect of “reproducing hegemonic knowledge (and practices) rather than challenging assumptions about social worlds and systems”
works to produce counterhegemonic knowledge and approaches to marginalized and subjugated social groups and/or about the operations of power and privilege. They analyze systems of inequality in relation to one another.
How people experience and internalize their social locations and social categories, influenced by their positions within social structures, and their individual characteristics, including developmental and biological factors
Crenshaw discusses a structural and representational intersectionality domain, similar to two of the above.
Crenshaw includes also political intersectionality, which she defines as the degree to which using a single member to serve as a prototype for policy remedies prevents the comprehensive representation, and by extension, remedy, of the obstacles created by the drivers of racial, gender, class, and sexuality disparities. [so this one is about remedies, or analyses of efforts to create change, which Hancock later extends both to activism and other approaches]
Many also imply a temporal domain, focused on change over time—from the past, historical analyses, and how things happen in time in the current, and working for change in the future.
The multiple, systemic ways that people face barriers to participation in society, exercising rights and taking advantage of opportunities. Mechanisms that create and sustain oppression are multiple, work together, and are often not recognized (e.g., powerlessness, marginalization, exploitation, cultural hegemony, violence [I. M. Young]).
Types of oppression (drawn mostly from Iris Marion Young):
Exploitation is when those with more power benefit from the labor or resources produced by others. This includes very overt activities like human trafficking and slavery, but also using people’s labors to produce profit without compensating them fairly--factors like huge disparities in salaries between those at the top of corporations, compared with those whose labor produces the goods or services from which the corporation benefits. Other examples include a focus on making money no matter who is hurt in the process.
Violence is probably the most obvious and visible form of oppression, when violence is overt and physical, but can be insidious when hidden and/or subtle. Violence is intended to control people directly, through threats and doing harm, or just removing those considered less worthy or dangerous. Some would argue that there are also systems of violence, in which those with devalued characteristics are more often punished more and differently for “offenses”, for instance in schools or the criminal justice system.
Marginalization occurs when people, ideas, groups are considered less important, confining them to lower social standings, pushing them to the edges of society. Overall, these are processes of exclusion, maybe worse than exploration because people may not be able to participate as labor in society. It is also more difficult to have any sense of belonging, influence in decision-making, or a voice (either on one’s own behalf or in important decisions) from outside of the “center”.
Cultural domination (some call this cultural imperialism) happens when the norms and values of more powerful people and cultures govern the entire society, thus advantaging those who understand and are comfortable with these. They help to define what is “normal” and people who do not fit these are then deemed abnormal or deficient in some way. Also, people not able to fit these norms and values comfortably have to spend a lot of extra energy trying to “fit in”.
Powerlessness arises from many sources, leading to some people feeling and acting more powerful and others feeling and acting less powerful. This includes having more devalued characteristics within society, lower access to quality education to enable one to participate or have a voice in society, and perhaps most difficult to address is indoctrination and internalization of devalued characteristics so that people believe that some are more superior and others more inferior. Powerless includes internalized negative images and multiple forces that silence and demean those with devalued characteristics.
The overall organization of hierarchical power relations for any society. Any specific matrix of domination has
A process of continuous self-reflection and action to discover and uncover how we, our approaches to social work practice, and our environments have been and continue to be shaped by societal assumptions and power dynamics: an essential tool to help us to recognize, understand and work to change the social forces that shape our societies, ourselves, and the lives of our clients and work for social justice. Elements of critical consciousness include:
Casual degradation of any socially marginalized group, such as the poor or the disabled. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". Some argue these concepts contribute to a culture of victimhood. Often described as three forms.
Widely shared beliefs within a society about why things happen as they do. Most of these are incorporated into routine expectations about events and relationships, and those who hold them may not be aware of them. Such beliefs help to sustain the social order (e.g., Blacks or women are weak and unable to care for themselves).
One’s locations along the various axes of social group memberships imposed by society and associated with differential access to power (e.g., ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, religion, economic class, gender, disability status, age. Can include immigration status and others in different contexts). Culturally defined and imposed status categories.
Many other terms are also relevant for different kinds of power (in addition to domains of power listed earlier).
Iterative processes of theorizing, action, reflection, action. Using one's own agency as situated knowers to identify and deepen knowledge of your own standpoint and to use knowledge gained from practice to inform theory and vice versa.
An unearned advantage, immunity, permission, right, or benefit granted to or enjoyed by an individual because they are members of a category of people that is accorded higher societal status, often non-conscious. A privilege is not a right and in some cases can be revoked. For example, in some countries driving on publicly maintained roads is a privilege; in others it is a right. If one violates certain rules, driving privileges can be revoked, and if one causes harm to another while exercising the right to travel just compensation may be sought and awarded. Most of us have privilege related to one or more of our social categories, and this is often invisible. Unexamined and unrecognized privilege makes it difficult to recognize oppression that others experience. It also makes it difficult for us to be allies across categories. McIntosh noted two major kinds of privilege. One type are benefits that everyone should have, but that some are denied. We should be working to have these privileges work for everyone. The other are circumstances in which some people benefit because they do not have to contend with situations that disadvantage them (surveillance, violence, marginalization, exploitation, etc). These we should recognize and work to eliminate them.
A dividing line or border. Marks “territories” or indicates that differences exist on either side of that boundary “line”, about purposes, roles, domains, perspectives, functions, experiences, types of power, ways of accomplishing something. Boundaries can be structural, cultural (about different beliefs and systems of meanings), different modes of operating, between and among people and types of people, and within a person (across roles, older and newer modes of thinking and goals, emotions vs rational thinking, etc.). There is always differences across boundaries, and the potential for conflict (from the need to recognize and navigate differences, to more difficult, serious and protracted struggles.
The shared sense of belonging to a group, whereby the identity of the group becomes part of the individual’s identity.
Conflict is a situation in which there are opposing demands or ideas, that may or may not have some compatible elements. Engaging constructively with conflict is an especially necessary when there are power and experience differences at play (and there always are). There is always the potential for learning and change from conflict, and change almost always produces conflict—between the old and the new, at minimum. When differences are not encouraged, recognized and engaged, those with more power will likely dominate, and assumptions will go unexamined.
Conflict is an important, expected, and necessary component of all interactions, planning and working for change, especially if one is working for social justice, using socially just processes. Navigating boundaries and faultlines within and across groups are important aspects in all social. work. Most of these issues occur both within and across groups.
Conflict can arise from intersectionality alliances and tensions, processes that are normal within group development, differences in ideologies or preferred strategies, navigating across many kinds of boundaries, and a whole variety of other forces. What is perceived as destructive conflict and skills and approaches in how to navigate it may vary substantially by gender, cultural differences, and sources and types of power present.
Boundaries can be across organizational components (vertical and/or lateral), across group and organizational memberships (representing different constituencies, agencies, departments), or boundaries of identity and perspectives. Sources of differences and potential tension can be structural, cultural, procedural, or many others.
As noted, conflict is a necessary stage in the development of groups, and allows group members to work out ways to handle differences in a group. Without acknowledgement of conflict and procedures for using conflict to further group goals, member differences are suppressed, and usually those with the most position power dominate. Groups and individuals that cannot use conflict to learn and problem-solve will be less effective.
Process of bringing into awareness the multiple aspects of one’s experiences including historical, environmental, cultural, interpersonal and intrapersonal. The quality or state of being aware especially of something within oneself. The state or fact of being conscious of an external object, state, or fact. Awareness; especially : concern for some social or political cause.
Experiences that help individuals or groups become more aware of the workings of political, social, economic, and/or cultural issues in their everyday lives. (PH Collins) The activity of seeking to make people more aware of personal, social, or political forces.
A theoretical framework that looks at cultural practices that reinforce both the existing power dynamics (and potentially different ideologies within these) and the agency of human groups and individuals that challenge those existing frameworks and understandings.
Behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, language, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought.
The unseating of those who occupy centers of power, as well as the knowledge that defends their power. Typically applied to elite White male power, the concept of decentering can apply to any type of group-based power. (PH Collins)
Also often refers to interrogating “taken-for-granted” meanings, from the perspectives of those closer to the margins in any social system, and creating new, more inclusive meanings, of those that reflect perspectives from those marginalized in particular systems.
Displace from the center or from a central position. Remove or displace (the individual human subject, such as the author of a text) from a primary place or central role. (Google)
In its most general sense, a constellation of methodologies used to dismantle truths or perceived norms. Deconstructive methodologies generally use three steps: identifying the binaries or oppositions that structure an argument; revealing how the dependent, negative term creates conditions for the existence of the positive term; and replacing binaries with more fluid concepts. The goal is to transcend binary logic by simultaneously being both and neither or the binary terms. (PH Collins) A method of critical analysis of philosophical and literary language that emphasizes the internal workings of language and conceptual systems, the relational quality of meaning, and assumptions implicit in forms of expression.
Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and expressions to fulfill the emotional requirements of a job (or contribute to classrooms). More specifically, workers are expected to regulate their emotions during interactions with customers, co-workers and superiors (or classmates and faculty). Emotional labor is also needed in caretaking, and in navigating privilege and oppression
When a group has a history of exploitation, violence, dominance, cultural imperialism, systematic disempowerment, or other forms of oppression, ordinary distrust becomes much stronger and deeper between groups. Through processes of collective memory (and maybe via epigenetic processes), experiences and feelings about past experiences are passed through the generations. This can also include historical trauma (see collective memory in glossary
Many forms of evidence are accumulating that experiences of mass oppressive events (e.g., colonialism, slavery, war, genocide, cultural destruction) exhibit higher levels of traumatic reactions and related consequences (physical, psychological and social) over many generations. These contribute substantially to current disparities. Thus current experiences of oppressive circumstances are frequently compounded by intergenerational transmission of historical trauma and on-going distrust and compensatory coping strategies. These can greatly inform work across group boundaries, but can also be very difficult to understand and navigate.
Perspective Taking the act of perceiving a situation or understanding a concept from an alternative point-of-view, such as that of another individual, or from different social locations.
“An act or instance of opposition; An opposing or retarding force; An underground organization” (Merriam Webster, 1998). In psychology, “resistance” is used to describe personality factors that we use to both avoid and cope with change and stress (Wade & Tavris, 1998). In literature on privilege, “resistance” is used to describe an individual or group’s difficulty to reflect upon and understand the inherent benefits of their position in the social matrix (Fine et al, 1997; McIntosh, 1989). In literature on oppression, “resistance” describes the subversive ways in which people who are oppressed exert dignity and agency in the presence of dehumanizing circumstances (Kesselman, et. al, 1997)
The power or liberty to which one is justly entitled or a thing to which one has a just claim. Rights serve as rules of interaction between people, and, as such, they place constraints and obligations upon the actions of individuals or groups (for example, if one has a right to life, this means that others do not have the liberty to murder him; if one has a right to a free public education, this may impose on someone else the requirement to pay taxes to pay the costs of that education). A moral or legal entitlement to have or obtain something or to act in a certain way. (Google)
The secret knowledges generated by oppressed groups. Such knowledge typically remains hidden because revealing it weakens its purpose of assisting them in dealing with oppression. Subjugated knowledges that aim to resist oppression constitute oppositional knowledges (Collins).
A strategy of control whereby people’s words and actions are constantly watched and recorded (Collins). This term originally comes from Foucault as does disciplinary as Collins uses this.