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A butterfly and a bee on a pink flower.
Pollinators
Pollinators
As a result of urbanization, the species of pollinators have become less diverse. Urbanization is the main cause of habitat loss and fragmentation for pollinators making it harder for pollinating insects to reach their natural resources and survive in urban environments. Flowering plants and meadows become scarcer which eventually leads to an increase in competition for each flower and an overall loss of biodiversity among pollinators. (Herrmann et al. 2023)
Bee on a pink flower.
https://willowridgegardencenter.com/create-pollinator-garden/
Pink flowers in the foreground of a city photo.
Plants
Plants have been more directly affected by urbanization as the increase in people and expansion of housing leads to the direct destruction of natural habitats and wildflowers. In its stead are meticulously mowed lawns and flowering plants chosen and maintained by inhabitants over wildflowers. In particularly urbanized and developed habitats, pollinators became less likely to pollinate flowering plants despite accessibility. (Johnson et al. 2017)
Urban Green Areas
Urban Green Areas
Central Park in New York City
Urban green areas range from rooftop gardens to larger parks and city squares improving air quality, reducing temperature, and regulating humidity.
Cherry blossoms in a city park
The fragmentation of habitats as a result of urbanization makes it significantly more difficult for pollinators to reach their necessary resources. Urban green areas serve as connecting land to the fragmented natural habitats allowing pollinators to reach the resources they are looking for. When given more access to resources the species diversity also increases. (Silva et al. 2020)
People enjoying a picnic in a city park
Additionally, these green areas benefit people by clearing the air, helping reduce the spread of diseases, and improving mental health by connecting people to nature. (Cox et al. 2018)
Infectious Disease and Parasitism
Honeybee hive infested with Nosema fungus.
Image captured by David Broberg. https://www.flickr.com/photos/dbroberg/2221119198/in/album-72157605887376666
Urbanization increases susceptibility of both wild and managed honey bee populations to disease and parasites. These bees are most impacted by the parasitic fungus Nosema ceranae, the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, and the viruses the V. destructor mites carry. (Youngsteadt et al., 2015)
Honeybees with Varroa mites attached to them.
https://www.ontario.ca/page/varroa-mites
According to a study by Youngsteadt et al. published in 2015, urban development contributed to infection intensity while being independent of immunity levels in bee populations. This suggested that urbanization affects transmission and persistence of disease. For instance, viability of N. ceranae spores may be improved due to less susceptibility to damaging cold temperatures, since urban areas tend to be warmer than their surroundings. (Youngsteadt et al., 2015)
References :
Cox, D. T. C., Shanahan, D. F., Hudson, H. L., Fuller, R. A., & Gaston , K. J. (2018, August 1). The impact of urbanisation on nature dose and the implications for human health. Landscape and Urban Planning. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204618306571
Herrmann, J., Buchholz, S., & Theodorou, P. (2023, February 15). The degree of urbanisation reduces wild bee and butterfly diversity and alters the patterns of flower-visitation in urban dry grasslands. Nature News. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-29275-8
Johnson , A., Fetters , A., & Ashman, T. (2017, September). Considering the unintentional consequences of pollinator gardens for urban native plants: Is the road to extinction paved with good intentions?. The New phytologist. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28626951/
Silva, J. L. S., de Oliveira, M. T. P., Cruz-Neto, O., Tabarelli, M., & Lopes, A. V. (2021, April). Plant-pollinator interactions in urban ecosystems worldwide: A Comprehensive Review including research funding and policy actions. PubMed Central. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7982380/
Youngsteadt, E., Appler, R. H., López-Uribe, M. M., Tarpy, D. R., & Frank, S. D. (2015). Urbanization Increases Pathogen Pressure on Feral and Managed Honey Bees. PloS one, 10(11), e0142031. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142031
Burnett, J. (2024, May 25). How to plant a Pollinator Garden. Flower Magazine. https://flowermag.com/how-to-plant-a-pollinator-garden/
Ridge, W. (2024, November 7). How to create a Pollinator Garden. Willow Ridge Garden Center & Landscaping. https://willowridgegardencenter.com/create-pollinator-garden/
Flowers_in_the_city. Desktop Nexus Wallpapers. (n.d.). https://abstract.desktopnexus.com/wallpaper/851797/
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