There are three distinct stages that a learner progresses through as they acquire and develop new motor skills. the rates of progression through the stages vary between individuals and the actual skill.

Activity 1: 

Study the images above. With no prior knowledge, predict the differences between the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of skill acquisition.

Activity : 

Tennis Serve

Question: 

a) What factors make learning this skill difficult?

b) What factors would make learning this skill easier

Cognitive Stage:

• is characterised by mental processes and the athlete thinking about the skill. 

• the athlete needs to think about their body position, which muscles they are contracting and what the movement should look like. 

• the athlete is thinking about what they are doing at each section of skill execution, resulting in a non fluid movement.

• athletes have large frequent errors and have a robotic jerky movement. 

• a coach needs to provide lots of feedback and demonstrations during this stage

• videos or other visualisations help show the athlete what the skill looks

• a coach will often break the skill down into its various sections to be put together as the athlete progresses in their learning.

• frequent short periods of exposure are best for its development. 20-40 min 3-5 times a week is a great amount of practice for learning a new skill. 

• even the training session itself, could break this new skill up by including skills the athlete does well, to ensure they are getting positive results as well as they learn the new skill. 

Associative Stage:

•  is when the athlete has progressed from thinking about what they are doing to thinking about how they do the skill. 

• the athlete no longer thinks about body position, but where they are passing the ball, or hitting the ball. They begin to think about end results rather than just on whether they manage to kick or hit the ball.

• the movement becomes more fluid and smooth. 

• there are still errors though these are not as large or as frequent as is in cognitive stage.

• the athlete can begin to provide some of their own feedback, but they still benefit from immediate feedback concerning their technique provided by a coach.

• the athlete can adjust their technique and begin to increase the complexity of the context in which the skill is executed. For example, hitting or kicking a moving ball, rather than a stationary one.

• this stage often lasts a long time, with many athletes not progressing to the final autonomous stage

Autonomous Stage:

•  is when the athlete no longer thinks at all about the skill. 

• the movement comes naturally and the athlete can focus on other aspects of the competition, such as who to pass the ball to, how to beat the defensive player, or where to hit the forehand.

• the athlete knows what the movement feels like and can provide their own feedback, though external feedback on skill execution may be beneficial. 

• Coaching an autonomous athlete usually focuses on the execution of the skill under pressure and with various cognitive processes being c][pompleted at the same time. This is usually done through small-sided games or competition simulations, such as sparing.

•  is the mastery stage and athletes who reaches this stage exhibit characteristics of skilled performers. These characteristics include: kinaesthetic sense, good anticipation, consistency of performance, and sound technique. 

• such athlete’s can correct their own movements midway through the movement to adjust to oppositional movements or environmental interference. 

• they consistently perform the skill well with minor errors occurring rarely.

• this final stage of skill acquisition is not reached by all athletes

Activity:

• List 1-12 and categorise each image into the correct stage of skill acquisition.

Characteristics of a person affect their capacity to and speed at which they learn a new skill.

The characteristics can include personality traits, such as a willingness to learn and accept criticism. They also include hereditary factors, such as your height or body type. Confidence levels will also affect the rate at which a new skill is learnt. An athlete should not be over-confident, but neither should they lack confidence as both are detrimental to skill learning.

Other characteristics of the learner such as their prior experiences and natural ability will also affect skill learning. An athlete with positive experiences in learning skills, especially similar skills will learn new skills faster. As will an athlete who has a great natural ability such as the person who naturally has good hand-eye coordination

Revision Activity 

Stages of Skill Acquisition and Characteristics of the Learner

The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practised, information from coaches and even the influence of the surrounding weather conditions. The environment can have a positive or negative impact on the learning process.

The nature of the skill

1. Open / Closed

The degree to which an environment could be described as predictable and stable - this can be placed on a continuum:

• Closed skills are performed in a learning environment that is unchanging, stable and predictable.

• Open skills are performed in an environment which is changing, less stable and somewhat unpredictable.

• Some sports are predominately one or the other (Diving - closed / surfing - open), while other sports contain aspects of both closed and open skills (basketball free throw - closed/ mid-court play - open).

• For a learner in the cognitive stage, closed skill activities allow more concentration on the task at hand. As they develop, the coach should include more open skills with increasing difficulty, to shift the focus to the environment around them and other players.

Place the following actions/skills on the continuum: boxing, GA shot, Soccer goalie diving for the ball, ten poin bowling  and playing the piano.

2. Gross/ Fine

The precision of body movements required to succeed- this can also be placed on a continuum:

• Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups to produce a less refined movement

• Fine motor skills require the use of small muscle groups to produce a precise and accurate movement.

Place the following actions on the continuum: ChaCha, archery, darts, a bar routine in gymnastics, Platform dive, spin ball in cricket, shooting

3. Self-paced/externally paced

The degree to which an athlete can decide when to perform a skill:

• Self-paced skills are performed when the athlete chooses to, such as when to bowl the cricket ball or when to commence a high jump attempt

• Externally paced skills are not at the discretion of the athlete, and they must perform the skill based on forces out of their control, such as hotting the baseball or being a goal keeper in hockey.

List 5 actions/sports that would sit at the self-paced end of the continuum and 5 actions/sports that would sit towards the externally paced end of the continuum.

4. Discrete/ Serial/Continuous

The degree to which the beginning and end of the skill is define:

• Discrete skills have a clearly define beginning and end, such as a golf shot, a 100m sprint or a pass in football.

• Serial skills are a combination of a range of discrete skills into one whole movement. Team sports require serial skills as an athlete is constantly using a variety of skills in competition

• Continuous skills have no clear beginning or end, and the point at which they start or end is at the discretion of the athlete, such as going for a run or swim.

Analysising a sport in terms of these classifications allows a coach to prepare appropriate training activities for athletes at different stages of skill acquisition.Reference: Cambridge Checkpoints NSW 2020-2021

Application 1:

Task:

Select a skill from the following list:

Basketball lay-up

Volleyball spike

Tennis serve

Softball pitch

Hockey strike

Soccer kick

Netball shooting

Drop kick (field goal in rugby union or league)

Golf drive

Drop punt (AFL)

1. Classify the nature of the skill (including a justification)

2. Discuss how the selected skill could be taught and refined in each of the stages of skill acquisition.

The Performance Elements

It is vital for performance that an athlete can perform their skills under pressure and respond to their environment. Decision making, strategic and tactical development are performance elements that enhance an athletes ability to perform.

The athlete who can manipulate a game to their advantage is said to have strategic and tactical awareness. 

Question: How can a coach teach decision -making and strategic and tactical development?

a) Touch

b) Netball

c) AFL

Decision-making refers to the various decisions made by any athlete during a performance. These include where to hit the ball, who to pass to and when, where to kick the ball and where to stand defensively. Decision-making can be improved by demonstrations or good decision-making, asking questions of the players such as “how do we create space here?”, practicing in game like scenarios, being allowed to explore various scenarios by changing oppositional tactics or strategies, and encouraging creativity in the athlete. The more opportunity athletes have to make decisions in games, the better they will get at it.

Strategy is the overall method used to achieve the goal, normally winning the competition and includes where an athlete should be at a particular time and what they should do, while tactics are about gaining an advantage over the opposing player normally connected with game sense and decision making. 

Tactics include things like: moving into space, marking a particular player or using a cut out pass. 

Strategic and tactical development comes through technical efficiency, understanding the game, and good execution. Players who have good technical skills are more likely to make a successful pass or shot while under pressure and making decisions. Players who understand how the game works and which strategies or tactics are better in various situations, are more successful in executing the strategy or tactic and selecting the right one for success. The strategy or tactic must then be practised to ensure timing is correct and execution is smooth and successful. This often requires the strategy to be clear, each individual player to know their role within the strategy and then learning to execute the strategy using various tactics through practice in various situations, which will also develop good decision-making.

Practice Methods

Opportunities to improve sports skills through continued and varied practiuce methods are essential to enable the development of the required skills, fitness and tactics of a specific sport. These methods can be classified in the following ways.

Massed Practice vs Distributed Practice

Massed practice involves stages of constant practice, with brief rest intervals. This type of practice is ideal for fun activities which are moderately intense, or for very extremely motivated athletes. Goalkeeping or golf putting are good examples.

Distributed practice consists of short work periods with regular rest periods. This is better suited to skills which are difficult or challenging to repeat and replicated. This type of training is designed for athletes who participate in high-intense activities and may experience low motivation during practice. Examples including tackling on a rugby team or water-skiing.

Resource: Improvingpdhpe

Whole vs Part

Whole Practice

Whole practice involves the learner practicing a skill as a complete movement. This is particularly suitable for learners who tend to grasp new skills quickly. Also, some skills, such as archery or a cartwheel, cannot easily be practiced in parts and therefore suitable for being practiced as a whole from the beginning.

Part Practice

Part practice involves a skill being broken down into sub-routines and each section being practised individually, before it is all put together and practised as a whole. This is a common method used for cognitive learners or when teaching a particularly complex skill.

Deciding on which practice methods are most suitable will vary. This will depend on such factors as; their stage of skill acquisition, the nature of the skill and practical considerations such as climate and the time available. 

Feedback

Activity 7: Brainstorm "who"..."how"..."positive"...."negative"

Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance. It constitutes an important role in the learning process because it provides guidance and helps the performer eradicate movement error. The many types of feedback include internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance. 

Intrinsic

Some feedback is experienced during the execution of the skill. Called internal feedback, this information is received through the body’s proprioceptive mechanisms (senses). Internal feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill. It embodies feelings, together with sensory information such as seeing the ball and hearing the sound of a ball hitting the bat. 

Extrinsic

Some feedback is derived from outside sources during the performance of a skill. Called external feedback, this information may take the form of a comment from the coach, applause from the crowd or the result of a game. It is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill. It includes various forms of external information, such as suggestions from the coach, video replays, judges’ scores and race results. 

The timing of feedback is important in skill learning. A certain amount is concurrent, yet much feedback may be delayed or withheld until the most appropriate moment.

Concurrent feedback 

This form of feedback is received during the performance of a skill. It occurs simultaneously with skill execution, and it is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism. An example is the feedback that a person receives while balancing in a headstand — information from the brain that enables them to maintain poise. Such a skill requires constant readjustment to the centre of gravity to maintain equilibrium, and its success relies on feedback being continuously supplied to the body.

Delayed feedback

Often there is a period of time between skill execution and feedback. Feedback received at a later stage is called delayed feedback. An example of delayed feedback is waiting for the result of a basketball throw. The feedback (a successful or unsuccessful throw) is not received until the ball either enters or misses the basket.

https://www.jroscoe.co.uk/downloads/roscoe850section2ch5only.pdf 

Feedback can also be classified in terms of results and performance. 

An athletes knowledge of results represents one variety of this feedback. Knowledge of results comes after the skill has been executed, and takes its form in how many goals were scored, the time it took and so on. 

Eg: a netball shooter may take 36 shots in a game and score 32. This knowledge of result helps to provide feedback

Knowledge of performance also provides feedback through more specific skills-based indicators. 

Eg: after the netball game in which the shooter scored 15 goals from 36 attempts, the coach may talk through with the athlete technical points such as hand position on the ball, position to the net and the angle of release. 

The knowledge of performance provides direct information about the quality of execution.

There is a marked difference between the movements of a skilled performer and those of an unskilled performer. Even to inexperienced judges, the movements of the skilled performer have certain observable qualities.

Activity 8: What characteristics (feature/s or quality belonging typically to a person ) would you expect to see in the following athletes?

Skilled vs Unskilled Performer

Well-developed kinaesthetic sense is a trademark of all elite sportspeople. It is particularly evident in sports such as tennis, where players need to return serves in which ball speeds regularly reach 200kph and higher. 

To enable a successful return of service, the limbs need to respond reflexively and with control, the muscular and neurological systems syncing to enable the racquet to meet the ball in the centre of the strings while also adjusting to either topspin or backspin. 

This ability is the result of years of repetitive practice where tiny adjustments are made each time a serve is returned until the body know exactly what action to make and how much force to apply. 

The movement is an autonomic response — a feel, touch sensation conditioned by endless practice but giving the appearance of effortless control.

Objective vs Subjective Measurement

Objective and subjective performance measures are used to classify the various different types of performance measures.

It is important to remember that these are not clear cut categories – objective and subjective performance measures. No, these measures sit at either end of a continuum.

Personal versus prescribed judging criteria

Criteria refer to the standards or qualities that are used for judging the value of a performance. 

There are two forms: personal criteria and prescribed criteria. Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance. Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity.

Personal criteria are frequently used by coaches when they select a team for the following week based on this week’s performance. They may feel that some team members played well and deserve to hold their positions for the next game. Spectators use personal criteria when evaluating dance performances and movies because their assessments are based on feelings and impressions rather than assigned criteria.

Judgements based on personal criteria rely on feelings and emotions as a measurement tool. A judge’s preconceived attitudes, expectations, opinions and possible bias may contribute to judgements that others may believe to be incorrect or unjustified. 

In top level competition in sports such as gymnastics, dance and diving, appraisal is initially quite subjective. In other words, judges watch a skill such as a dive and form an impression based on appreciation of the movement. However, they then apply the prescribed criteria to standardise interpretations as much as possible. This adjusts their subjectivity along a continuum to an area where it is seen to be more objective. The more rigorous the criteria and the more competent the judges in applying the criteria, the more objective is the appraisal.

While it is impossible to make judgements totally objective in performances such as these, the use of prescribed criteria seeks to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework. A judge’s use of prescribed criteria, such as checklists, rating scales and degree of difficulty charts, helps to more accurately convert the appraisal into meaningful measurements such as a score and something to which an audience, spectators and fellow judges can relate.

For organised competitions, judges are usually supplied with prescribed criteria well before the event.