1. What are the scopes of Microbiology?
2. What do you mean by 'abiogenesis' or 'Spontaneous Generation Theory'?
3. List all the contributions of Louis Pasteur?
4. What do you mean by 'Germ Theory of diseases'?
5. Explain the Koch's postulate.
6. How will you differentiate a macroorganism and microorganism?
7. List two famous vaccines and their scientists involved?
8. What is LUCA and what major lineages of cells evolved from LUCA? Why were cyanobacteria so important in the evolution of life on Earth?
9. How old is Earth, and when did cellular life forms first appear?
10. Who discovered 'Penicillin' and 'Streptomycin'? From which organisms they isolated?
11. What are the contributions of Segai Winogradsky?
12. What are the contributions of M W Beijerinck?
13. What is 'Goose neck experiment'? What is its significance?
14. Name five scientists who got Nobel prize through microbiological works.
15. In Microbiology, What do mean by 'Growth'?
16. What is "Food Microbiology' dealing with?
17. How microbial cells can be a model for studying biological systems?
18. List five important features of a cell which is common to both prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
19. List two ways in which microorganisms are important in the food industries and agricultural systems .
20. List different groups of organisms and their characteristic features.
21. What do you mean by 'Geomicrobiology' and 'Aeromicrobiology'
22. What are dealt in 'Microbial Physiology'?
23. What is meant for 'Microbial Genetics'?
24. Name two complex ecological habitat of microorganisms, where you will find diversified groups of organisms.
25. Can you compare the microorganisms associated with plant and human?
1. Define and compare the terms magnification and resolution?
2. What is the useful upper limit of magnification for a bright-field microscope? Why is this so?
3. Differentiate contrast and Resolution?
4. What major advantage does phase-contrast microscopy have over staining?
5. How can cells be made to fluoresce?
6. How would you calculate the resolving power of microscope?
7. A Microscope has resolving of 0.22 micrometer and other has 0.30 micrometer. Which one you will prefer? Why?
8. How magnification is being calculated?
9. Does the binocular is working same as that of microscope? How?
10. How can you adjust the microscope to get good focus?
11. What are the four major properties of a good microscopic images?
12. What do you mean by limit of resolution?
13. How oil immersion lens is superior than dry lens?
14. Describe the working principle of oil immersion lens?
15. Draw the ray diagram of the microscope and describe the optic parts responsible for it.
16. Differentiate the optic (light) microscope and electron microscope?
17. What are the resolving power of human eye, light microscope and electron microscope?
18. Describe the working principle of phase contrast microscope?
19. What are the advanced microscopes presently being used in Microbiology and Biotechnology?
20. How three-dimensional images being obtained in microscopy?
21. What is an electron micrograph? Why do electron micrographs have so much greater resolution than light micrographs?
22. What type of electron microscope would be used to view a cluster of cells? What type would be used to observe internal cell structure?
23. What color will a gram-negative cell be after Gram staining by the conventional method?
24. How staining improves the microscopic observations?
25. What do you mean by mordent? What is its function in Gram staining?
26. Differentiate the Positive staining and Negative staining?
27. Differentiate Simple staining and Differential staining?
28. Assume that you are performing Gram straining of both G+ and G- bacterial cells. During the procedure, if Iodine solution was forgotten to add, what would be the result? . If Destainer (alcohol) was forgotten to add, what would be the result?
29. What is the role of Counter stain in Gram's staining?
30. What are the three important differential staining procedures in Microbiology? What is the application of them?
31. Describe the chemical property and structure of a 'Stain' in Microbiology?
32. 'Staining and Microscopy' or 'Phase contrast Microscope without Stain. Which one you will follow? Why?
33. Is it possible to stain the cell for electron microscopy?
34. How fluorescent microscope is working?
35. What do you mean by 'Sterilization' in Microbiology?
36. What is Decimal reduction time (D)?
37. How temperature (heat) kills the bacteria?
38. Differentiate the wet heat and dry heat used in sterilization?
39. What is 'Pasteurization'? Where it is used?
40. What is 'Tyndallization'? Where it is applied?
41. What are the different options do you have to sterilize the water?
42. What do you mean by 'Cold sterilization'?
43. What is the working principle of autoclave?
44. How filtration helps sterilization? Where this technique can be adopted?
45. What is the minimum pore size of a filter to stop the bacteria? What about virus?
46. Distinguish between the sterilization of microbiological media and the pasteurization of dairy products.
47. How UV rays be 'Sterilizing agent'?
48. What is the working principle of Laminar air flow chamber?
49. Why is ionizing radiation more effective than UV radiation for sterilization ?
50. Differentiate 'Disinfectant' and 'Antiseptic'?
51. How halogens are used for sterilization?
52. How phenolic compounds kill the microorganisms?
53. Compare the vegetative cell, cyst and endospore of bacteria in terms of 'sterilization'?
54. Define Fungicide and Fungistasis, Bacteriocide and Bacteriostasis.
55. What do you mean by 'Serial dilution and Plating method?
56. What do you mean by 'Viable count method'?
57. Why 'Colony forming units' being used instead of cells/g?
58. What do you mean by 'Enrichment culture'?
59. Describe different types of 'growth media' being used in Microbiology?
60. Differentiate the 'Streak plate' and 'Spread plate' method of purification of bacteria?
61. What are different methods available for purification of fungi?
62. What do you mean by 'Pure culture'?
63. What do you mean by 'Axinic Culture'?
64. Name two methods to preserve the bacteria for 3 months.
65. How can you preserve the bacteria for more than 1 year?
66. What do you mean by 'Lyophilization'?
67. How fungi are preserved?
68. What is saprophyte?
69. Differentiate the saprophytic and parasitic fungi?
70. Differentiate the yeast and filamentous fungal asexual reproduction?
71. Name some algae that are deleterious to human?
72. Name some environmental or ecological ill-effects caused by algae?
73. What is the major role of fungi in soil?
74. How fungi are important in agriculture?
75. How protozoa is a good model cellular system for 'animals'?
76. How yeast is a model system for plants though they do not have chlorophyll?
77. Differentiate micro-algae and macro-algae.
78. Justify: Yeast is important for industrial processes.
79. Name two fungal diseases and their casual agents of rice.
80. Justify: Lichens are ecological indicators.
1. List three key characters of archaea, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae and virus.
2. What is the relation among the microorganisms through 'Whittaker's Five kingdom concept'?
3. What do you mean by 'Protists'?
4. Describe the Haekel's three kingdom concept?
5. What do you mean by 'Phylogeny'?
6. Describe Carl Woese's Three Domains of Life?
7. How can species of Bacteria and Archaea be distinguished by molecular criteria?
8. Differentiate prokaryote and eukaryote at cellular levels?
9. Describe the outline of 'Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology'?
10. How cyanobacteria are important in evolution of biological systems?
11. Describe two bacteria that are so far reported as 'Biggest'?
12. How bacteria can be grouped based on the cell arrangements?
13. How bacteria are grouped based on their shape?
14. What are the different cell arrangements for Coccus shaped bacteria?
15. Distinguish Bacillus, Vibrio, Spirilla, Spirocheta based on their shape?
16. Which group of bacteria look like fungi? Which group look like algae?
17. Describe the structure of bacterial flagella? How it is working for motility?
18. Describe different flagella arrangements with examples?
19. What do you mean by Endoflagella?
20. Describe the structure and functions of pili or fibrella?
21. Distinguish bacterial flagella and pilus?
22. Write the functions of bacterial capsule?
23. Differentiate the Gram +ve and Gram -ve bacteria based on their cell wall chemistry?
24. Describe the functions of Bacterial cell wall.
25. Why the lipopolysaccharide layer is called as 'Outer membrane'?
26. Draw the basic structure of a lipid bilayer and label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
27. Why do bacterial cells need cell walls? Do all bacteria have cell walls?
28. Why is peptidoglycan such a strong molecule?
29. What does the enzyme lysozyme do on cell wall?
30. What components constitute the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria?
31. What is the function of porins and where are they located in a gram-negative cell wall?
32. Why does alcohol readily decolorize gram-negative but not gram-positive bacteria?
33. What are the cellular organelles present in the bacterial cell?
34. Differentiate the genome of bacteria and eukaryota.
35. Describe the bacterial chromosome.
36. What are the cytoplasmic inclusions present in the bacteria?
37. What is poly beta hydroxy butrate? How it is useful for bacteria?
38. What is mesosome? What is its function in the bacteria?
39. What is the main function of ribosome? How bacterial ribosome is differed with eukaryotes?
40. Ribosome is the universal organelle that link all cellular life forms. How?
41. When Bacillus and E. coli are heated slowly to 80-90 degree C, Bacillus can survive but not E. coli. How?
42. Describe the structure of endospore and its ecological adaptations.
43. What do you mean by 'Glycocalyx'?
44. If a bacterial cell loss its capsule, what would be the effects occur to it?
44. Peptidoglycon layer of Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria were removed from the cell. How will you call them?
45. Is there any other mean of motility of bacteria other than flagella?
46. What are plasmids? Describe their functions.
47. Who are called as 'Extremophiles' and why they called so?
48. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between bacteria and archaea?
49. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between eukaryota and archaea at cellular and molecular levels?
50. Describe about methanogens? Give some examples.
51. What are extreme thermophiles? Give some examples.
52. What is the function of Bacteriorhodopsin?
53. Describe about pseudomurain?
54. Describe about Halobacteria with suitable examples.
55. Who are all called "Protists'? What is the unique feature of Protists?
56. Describe the morphology of protozoa.
57. How protozoa varied their locomotive organs and feeding system?
58. What are the ecological significance of protozoa?
59. Describe the algal morphology.
60. How algae differ in terms of their pigments?
61. What are the economically important chemicals being extracted from algae?
62. What are the ecological significance of algae?
63. How will you differentiate the cyanobacteria and algae?
64. Name some foods being prepared from algae?
65. Describe about lichens and their ecological significance.
66. What are slime molds? Give some examples.
67. Differentiate between algae and fungi.
68. Describe the saprophytic, parasitic, predatory and symbiotic fungi with suitable examples.
69. What do you mean by necrotrophic and biotrophic fungi?
70. Differentiate between mold and yeast.
71. Describe the morphology of yeast.
72. What are the importance of yeast?
73. Describe the chemicals present in the cell wall of fungi with suitable examples.
74. List the asexual spores present in the fungi with examples.
75. What are the types of sexual reproduction present in fungi?
76. What do you mean by virion?
78. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. Justify.
79. Describe the chemical nature of virus.
80. What do you mean by Capsid?
81. How does a virus differ from a plasmid?
82. How does a virion differ from a cell?
83. What is a bacteriophage?
84. Why does a virus need a host cell?
85. What do you mean by envelope of virus?
86. What is the difference between a naked virus and an enveloped virus?
87. What kinds of enzymes can be found within the virions of specific viruses?
88. Describe the diversity / variations in genome of virus with suitable examples.
89. What is latent period?
90. What is plaque-forming unit?
91. Describe the structure of bacteriophage.
92. Describe the life cycle of a virus.
93. Outline the Baltimore's virus classification.
94. How the attachment of virus on the surface of the host is important for the specificity?
95. Describe different genome of bacteriophage with examples.
96. Describe the lytic cycle of phage with suitable example.
97. Describe the lysogenic cycle of phage with example.
98. Differentiate the lytic phage and temperate phage.
99. What is 'Prophage'?
100. What is 'Lysogen'?
101. How M13 phage replicates in the bacterial cell?
102. Name two phages that are useful in genetic engineering.
103. Describe about Reterovirus?
104. List the important plant viruses and their diseases?
105. Describe the structure of tobacco mosaic virus.
106. What is viriod and how it is different from virus? Give examples.
107. What do you mean by Prions?
108. Who is the causal agent for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease? Give details.
109. What is 'Mad cow disease'?
110. What events need to happen for lambda to become a prophage?
1. What do you mean by growth in bacteria?
2. Describe the binary fission of bacteria?
3. What are the vegetative reproduction methods found in bacteria?
4. What is generation time of bacteria?
5. What is growth curve of bacteria. Describe the events take place in each stage.
6. What do you mean by logarithmic / exponential growth of bacteria?
7. A bacterial culture in its log phase was grown for 2 hours. Its initial population is 100 cells/ml and final population is 1000 cells/ml. Calculate its generation time.
8. When does the bacterial chromosome replicate in the binary fission process?
9. Why does exponential growth lead to large cell populations in so short a period of time?
10. What is a semi-logarithmic plot and what information about bacterial growth can we derive from it?
11. Distinguish between the terms specific growth rate and generation time.
12. If in 8 h an exponentially growing cell population increases from 5 x 10^6 cells/ml to 5 x 10^8 cells/ml, calculate generation time (g), and number of generations (n).
13. Describe chemostat and turbidostat growth of microorganisms.
14. How do microorganisms in a chemostat differ from microorganisms in a batch culture?
15. What is synchronous culture?
16. Differentiate the batch culture and chemostat.
17. In what phase of the growth curve are cells dividing in a regular and orderly process? Describe it.
18. Under what conditions does a lag phase not occur?
19. Why do cells enter stationary phase?
20. What is diauxic growth of bacteria? Provide suitable example.
21. How bacteria can be divided based on their energy, electron and carbon?
22. Differentiate phototroph and chemotroph.
23. Differentiate autotroph and heterotroph.
24. Describe about Chemoorganotrophic heterotroph with suitable examples.
25. Describe about Photolithrotrophic autotroph with suitable examples.
26. What are chemolithrtrophic autotrophs.
27. How will you define 'human being' and 'Plant' based on their nutritional requirement.
28. How Rhotopseudomonas derive its energy, electron and carbon?
29. Differentiate Pseudomonas and Rhodopseudomonas based on their nutritional behavior.
30. What are mixotrophs? Give example.
31. What are oligotrophs and coprotrophs?
32. Which four elements make up the bulk of a cell’s dry weight?
33. Which two classes of macromolecules contain most of a cell’s nitrogen?
34. What roles does iron play in cellular metabolism? How do cells sequester iron?
35. What are the cellular / macro molecules contain phosphorus?
36. What is the significance of sulphur in the cell metabolism?
37. What do you mean by cofactor?
38. What do you mean by coenzyme?
39. Differentiate catabolism and anabolism?
40. What is the major carbon source being used by autotrophs?
41. Differentiate the complex medium and synthetic medium.
42. How can you classify the media based on their agar percentage or consistency?
43. How enrichment medium is functioning?
44. What is the principle of differential medium?
45. What are thermophiles. Give example.
46. Differentiate thermophile and thermotolerant with suitable examples.
47. Differentiate Psychrophile and psychrotolerant with examples.
48. What do you mean by optimum temperature with reference to microbial growth. How is it differed from maximum and minimum temperature?
49. How can you classify the microorganisms based on their temperature requirement?
50. How can you group the organisms based on their oxygen requirement? Provide suitable examples.
51. Which domain of prokaryotes includes species with optima of >100°C? What special techniques are required to culture them?
52. What is the structure of membranes of hyperthermophilic Archaea, and why might this structure be useful for growth at high temperature?
53. What is Taq polymerase and why is it important?
54. What are the reactive oxygen species? What is the significance of them to the microbial growth?
56. How will you differentiate aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
57. Differentiate oblicate aerobe and facultative anaerobe?
58. What are microaerophiles and how they are different from aerotolerant?
59. Why the anaerobes cannot survive in the oxygen-rich environment?
60. What are the enzymes that detoxify the oxygen derivatives?
61. What terms are used to describe organisms whose growth pH optimum is either very high or very low?
62. Differentiate the acidophiles and neutrophiles?
63. What are halophiles and how they differ from halotolerents?
64. What do you mean by xerophiles and osmotolerant?
65. Describe a habitat where you would find a psychrophile; a hyperthermophile, an obligate anerobe.
66. Where will you find an acidophile and a xerophile?
67. What is free energy?
68. CH4 + ½ O2 → CH3OH. ΔG is -181.75 KJ. What it infers?
69. Does glucose formation from the elements release or require energy?
70. Differentiate exergonic and endergonic reactions?
71. What is activation energy? How it can be reduced in biochemical reactions?
72. What do you mean by a chemical energy? How it is expressed?
73. What is the role of enzyme in a chemical reaction?
74. How energy is stored in cells?
75. What do you mean by phosphorylation. How it occurs in bacterial systems?
76. Differentiate Oxidative phosphorylation and substrate level phosphorylation?
77. Differentiate Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation?
78. Describe the oxidation and reduction in this reaction: H2 + ½ O2 → H2O.
79. What is redox potential?
80. How NAD+ works to transport the electrons in a cell?
81. NAD+ to NADH; NADH to NAD+. Identify the oxidation and reduction reactions. Which one is good? Why?
82. What do you mean by 'High energy compounds' or 'energy-rich compounds'?
83. How the reaction ADP + Pi → ATP stores the energy?
84. What is the importance of anhydride bonds in metabolism?
85. What is electron carrier?
86. Differentiate respiration and fermentation.
87. What are the three phases of glycolysis?
88. At the end of glycolysis, how many ATP and NADH are gained?
89. Is glycolysis metabolic pathway an exergonic reaction or endergonic reaction?
90. What is the other name of glycolysis?
91. What are the alternative pathways for glycolysis?
92. From pyruvate, how respirative and fermentative organism differ?
93. What are the four components essential for respiration?
94. What is the significance of fermentation in terms of its applications?
95. What makes the fermentative organisms to go for reduction process after glycolysis?
96. Differentiate the aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
97. How will you differentiate the anaerobic respiration and fermentation?
98. Provide two example each for aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration and fermentation.
99. Describe the TCA cycle.
100. Calculate the net ATP yield per mole of glucose respired.
101. What are the electron carriers present in the membrane that are responsible for electron transport chain?
102. Describe the electron transport chain?
103. What is proton motive force?
104. What is terminal electron acceptor? What is its significance?
105. How ATPase synthesizes ATP?
106. Why NADH gives 3 ATP, while FADH2 gives only two?
107. Describe the oxygenic and anoxygenic photophosphorylation with suitable examples. How they are differ to each other.
108. Describe the light-harvesting systems present in bacteria.
109. How green sulphur bacteria gets its energy, electron and carbon?
110. How purple sulphur bacteria gets its energy, electron and carbon?
111. Why bacterial photosynthesis will not give oxygen? Instead what byproduct will be formed?
112. What is carbon-di-oxide fixation?
113. Describe the Calvin cycle.
114. How ATP and NADPH are produced during photosynthesis.
115. What is reverse electron transport chain and what is its significance.
116. Differentiate the photosystem of bacteria and algae.
117. What are the electron carriers present in the bacteria for photophosphorylation.
118. What are the different CO2 fixing systems present in bacteria?
119. Give three similarities of respiration and photosynthesis. Give three dissimilarities.
120. Which bacteria do photosynthesis similar to that of plants?
121. Describe the Chemo-lithotrophic autotrophic hydrogen oxydation?
122. Describe the biochemistry of nitrification with suitable example.
123. Describe the biochemistry and microbiology of sulphur oxidation.
124. How iron-oxidation occurs in chemo-lithrotrophic bacteria.
125. What are the significance of chemo-lithrotrophic autrophs in agriculture and ecology?
126. Name the enzymes responsible for nitrification process.
127. Name two ecological habitats where the chemolithotrophs are present.
128. Differentiate Chemolithotrophic autotroph and Photolithotrophic autotroph.
129. Differentiate Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Thiobacullus ferrooxidans.
130. Differentiate Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
1. Describe the bacterial genome
2. How bacteria and eukaryotes different their genome arrangements?
3. What is 'Supercoiling of DNA'? What is its significance?
4. List the enzymes that are associated with DNA.
5. Describe the functions of DNA polymerase.
6. Describe the RNA polymerase's function.
7. What are helicases?
8. What is 'Denatruation of DNA' means?
9. What is 'Melting of DNA'?
10. How denaturation and renaturation of DNA occurs under laboratory conditions.
11. What is 'Primer'?
12. What is the role of 'Topoisomease and Ligase"?
13. How Exonuclease and Restriction Endonuclease are functioning in the cell?
14. What are the enzymes that are functioning during DNA replication?
15. What is plasmid?
16. List the plasmids present in E. coli?
17. What is the function of R plasmid.
18. What is the function of col plasmid.
19. Why plasmids are independent of bacterial chromosome?
20. When a F plasmid is removed from the cell, what would happen to the cells?
21. How degradative plasmids are helpful?
22. Name three agriculturally important organisms, whose functions are mediated by plasmid.
23. Describe the features of plasmid.
24. What is central dogma of life. How it helps to understand the genetics?
25. Write briefly about DNA replication.
26. Describe the protein synthesis in brief.
27. Define mutation, mutant and mutagen.
28. How can you differentiate a mutation event happening in bacteria and eukaryotes?
29. Define point mutation.
30. Differentiate Spontaneous mutation and induced mutation.
31. Differentiate mutant strain and wild strain.
32. E. coli lacZ+ and E. coli LacZ. By observing these two, what information you can provide?
33. Differentiate genptype and phenotype.
34. Describe the base-pair substitution mutation.
35. Describe Frame shift mutation
36. Differentiate Base-pair substitution and Frame-shift mutation.
37. Differentiate Transition and Transversion.
38. What are the possible effects due to point mutation.
39. How addition or deletion of a basepair causes mutation.
40. What do you mean by reversion mutation?
41. What is auxotrophic mutants?
42. A mutant is lost its ability to synthesize Proline aminoacid. How will you identify the mutant?
43. A mutant is temperature tolerant (45°C), while the wild strain grows only at 37°C. How will you identify the mutant?
44. A mutant lost its pigment (green-coloured) and appeared as pale yellow colour in NA medium. How will you pick the mutant from the wild strains.
45. A phage-susceptible wild strain was UV-mutated and produced 'Phage-resistant mutant'. What would be the possible mechanism that occurred in the mutant for this?
46. What is the principle of 'Replica plating technique'?
47. Compare the 'Selection' and 'Screening' procedures to identify the mutants?
48. List different mutagens with suitable examples.
49. How UV causes mutation?
50. What are transposons?
51. Name a chemical that replace the Thiamine and thereby causes mutation?
52. What are 'Intercalating agents'?
53. List some biological mutagens.
54. What is site-directed mutagenesis?
55. What is Thiamine dimers?
56. What is mutation frequency?
57. How bacterial mutation can be applicable for welfare of human?
58. Justify: Mutations will help to assess the functioning of a gene.
59. How a mutant cannot be identified, ever after mutation happened in a gene?
60. Differentiate 'Transposons' and 'Insertion sequences'?
61. What are the possible events take place, when a foreign DNA enters into the bacterial cell?
62. What do you mean by homologous recombination?
63. What is RecA protein. Describe its role in genetic recombination.
64. Define donor and recipient.
65. What are the three means of homologous recombination?
66. Which protein, found in all prokaryotes, facilitates the pairing required for homologous recombination?
67. In eukaryotes, recombination involves entire chromosomes, but this is not true in prokaryotes. Explain.
68. The donor bacterial cell in a transformation is probably dead. Explain.
69. Even in naturally transformable cells, competence is usually inducible. What does this mean?
70. In which of the methods, bacteriophage involved the genetic recombination?
71. What do you mean by 'Transfection'?
72. In conjugation, how are donor and recipient cells brought into contact with each other?
73. Explain how rolling circle DNA replication allows both donor and recipient to end up with a complete copy of plasmids transferred
by conjugation.
74. Why does F have two different origins of replication?
75. In conjugation involving the F plasmid of Escherichia coli, how is the host chromosome mobilized?
76. Why does an Hfr x F- mating not yield two Hfr cells?
77. At which sites in the chromosome can the F plasmid integrate?
78. What is the difference between F cell and F` (F prime) cell?
79. Differentiate F(prime) and Hfr cell?
80. Define Hfr cell.
81. Explain the process of generalized transduction.
82. Explain the process of specialized transduction.
83. How would you differentiate the generalized transduction and specialized transduction.
84. Why F plasmid is needed for conjugation?
85. Describe the competence of bacteria.
86. What is transducing particle?
87. Define recombinant DNA technology.
88. What do you mean by gene cloning.
89. What of the enzymes that are associated with DNA are essential to form recombinant DNA.
90. Name some of the means to obtain the gene of interest.
91. What do you mean by agarose gel electrophoresis?
92. Which enzyme is used in polymerase chain reaction? Why?
93. Describe about the polymerase chain reaction.
94. In PCR, a specific length of DNA alone synthesized under laboratory conditions How?
95. Describe how the restriction endonuclease is functioning?
96. Give a note on Taq polymerase.
97. What do you mean by vectors?
98. Describe any plasmid being used as vector?
99. Describe the phage vector?
100. How gene cloning helps the mankind?