Glossary

Music

absolute music. “Abstract” music or music written in specific forms for its own sake – that is, with no connection to a story or other type of “program”.

accent. An emphasis given to a specific note or tone, often represented by the symbol > as in [note]>.

accidental. (1) A notational sign indicating a change in pitch: a sharp (# – up a half step); a flat (b – down a half step); or a natural sign (n – restores a note by a half step to its normal pitch in the scale). (2) A sharp or flat that appears in the musical score but is not part of the key signature.

accompaniment. A part that supports a voice or an instrument (e.g., a rhythmic pattern; a melodic pattern; a chordal accompaniment, which uses chords to support a melodic line).

active listening. The process of listening to music for more than just personal enjoyment; for example, listening to one or more specific elements for a specific purpose, or listening while playing with a focus on specific tasks and effects.

anacrusis. See pick-up note(s).

arrange. Adapt a composition for performance by voice(s) and/or instrument(s) that are different from those of the original version of the composition. The result is often called an arrangement.

articulation. The joining or separation of tones, or the way in which musical tones are attacked (e.g., legato [note with dash above] - smooth; staccato [note with dot on top] – detached)

aural/oral. Aural relates to hearing and listening. Oral relates mainly to singing, but can also include spoken rhymes and chant as well as instrumental music (as in “oral tradition”).

bar. The notes and rests contained between two bar lines on the musical staff. Also called a measure.

bar lines. Vertical lines that divide the five-line musical staff into measures.

balance. The blend of voices and/or instruments in a musical work, or the blend and positioning of voices and/or instruments in a performance.

bass clef. [bass clef] The clef used for lower-pitched instruments or voices. Also called the F clef.

beat. An aspect of the element called duration. A steady pulse. The underlying pulse of many musical forms. In music with a metre, there are strong beats (beats that are often emphasized) and weak beats (unstressed beats). See also rhythm.

binary form (AB form). A musical form that consists of two contrasting sections (A and B). See also form.

blues scale. Usually a six-note scale in which a chromatic half step is added to the pentatonic scale, which gives it the typical blues sound. A flatted note, often the third, fifth, or seventh note, occurs in place of an expected major interval (e.g., C–Eb–F–Gb–G–Bb). See also scale.

body percussion. Sounds produced for different effects by using the body as an instrument (e.g., clapping hands, snapping fingers, patting the thighs).

bordun. A repeated pattern using only the tonic and dominant (I and V, or “do” and “so”) of the scale as an accompaniment.

brass instrument. An instrument that is made of metal and that has a cupped mouthpiece (e.g., trumpet, trombone, tuba).

breath mark. [symbol omitted] A symbol placed above the staff indicating when the performer is to take a short breath (for wind instruments) or to lift the bow and play the next note with a downward stroke (for stringed instruments).

call and response. (1) A lead-and-follow activity, sometimes also called question and answer. (2) A song or rhythmic pattern consisting of alternating sections of calls sung or played by a leader (solo) and responses sung or played by an individual or a group. The call (question) and response (answer) are different phrases (not echoes). It is a form that is common in many musical traditions. Calls and responses are often improvised. (Rhythm example: The teacher claps “ta, ta, ti-ti, ta” and the student claps a response “ti-ti, ti-ti, ta, ta”. Instrumental example: The teacher and student create a call and response using different notes from a pentatonic scale on a xylophone). See also echo singing.

canon. A piece in which the same melody is repeated exactly by a different voice that begins a short interval after the original voice has started. Canons may also be for more than two voices, and may be sung or performed on instruments. See also round.

chant. The rhythmic speaking or singing of words or sounds, sometimes using only one or two pitches, called reciting tones. Some chants are very simple (e.g., children’s chants), whereas others are very complex melodically (e.g., Gregorian chant, which was sung by monks in religious services in the Middle Ages).

chord. Several notes, often three or four, played simultaneously, usually containing a root, third, and fifth. Chords of three notes are often called triads. For example, a G-major chord (triad) is made up of the notes G (root), B (third), and D (fifth). Chords are usually described with roman numerals – for example, I for the chord on the first degree of the scale, or tonic; V for the chord on the fifth degree of the scale, or dominant; IV for the chord on the fourth degree of the scale, or subdominant. A commonly used chord progression is therefore written and described as I-IV-V-I.

chromatic scale. A scale made up of twelve consecutive notes, each a half step apart.

coda. (1) An extra section of music at the end of a piece. (2) A concluding musical section announcing the end of a piece. See also da capo al coda; dal segno al coda.

compose. Create a piece of music (a composition) using the elements of music to convey musical thoughts and meaning.

compound metre. A metre in which each main beat in a bar is divided into three (e.g., compound duple: ; compound triple: ). See also metre; oral count; time signature.

conducting patterns. Patterns that the conductor uses to indicate the beats in a bar. (At the same time, the conductor indicates tempo, dynamics, and sometimes articulation.) (diagram omitted)

crescendo. A common term for a gradual increase in volume, often indicated by the abbreviation “cresc.” or the symbol [symbol omitted].

da capo al coda. Abbreviated as D. C. al coda. Indication to return to the beginning of the piece and play to coda, then play the coda. See also coda.

da capo al fine. Abbreviated as D. C. al fine. Indication to return to the beginning of the piece and play to fine (the end).

dal segno al coda. Abbreviated as d.s. (or D. S.) al coda. Indication to return to the sign [omitted] and play to coda or [symbol omitted], then play the coda. See also coda.

dal segno al fine. Abbreviated as d.s. (or D. S.) al fine. Indication to return to the sign [omitted] and then play to fine (the end).

decrescendo. A common term for a gradual decrease in volume, often indicated by the abbreviation “decresc.” or by the symbol [omitted]. The term diminuendo (abbreviation dim.) is also commonly used.

devised notation. See non-traditional notation; visual prompts; visual representation.

dotted note or rest. A note or rest to which a dot is added. The dot adds one-half of the note’s value. The following are some examples in 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 time:

- dotted half note. A note that is held for three beats.

- dotted half rest. Indication of a period of silence lasting three beats.

- dotted quarter note. A note that is held for one and one-half beats.

– dotted quarter rest. Indication of a period of silence lasting for one and one-half beats.

See also notes and rests.

dotted rhythm. Rhythm in which long notes alternate with one or more short notes. The long notes are dotted. See also dotted note or rest.

duple metre. See metre; oral count; time signature.

duration. The element of music that relates to time. Fundamental concepts related to it are beat, rhythm, metre, and tempo.

dynamics. The element of music relating to the varying degree of volume. Some fundamental concepts related to this element are: crescendo, decrescendo; forte (f – loud), fortissimo (ff – very loud), mezzo forte (mf – moderately loud); piano (p – soft), pianissimo (pp – very soft), mezzo piano (mp – moderately soft).

echo singing. (1) A lead-and-follow activity, sometimes also called echoing. (2) A melodic or rhythmic pattern consisting of alternating sections of calls sung or played by a leader (solo) and responses sung or played by the follower(s). The calls and the responses consist of the same melodic or rhythmic phrase, thus “echo”. (Rhythm example: The teacher claps “ta, ta, ti-ti, ta” and the student claps the response “ta, ta, ti-ti, ta”.) See also call and response.

elements of music. Fundamental components of music. They are defined for the purposes of this document as duration (beat, rhythm, metre, tempo), pitch (melody), dynamics, timbre, texture/harmony, and form. See also individual entries for these terms.

ensemble. A group of singers, or instrumentalists.

expressive controls. Particular kinds of emphasis given to notes, using such means as articulation, fermatas, tempo, dynamics, and timbre.

family of instruments. A grouping of similar types of musical instruments. In European music, there have traditionally been four families of instruments (i.e., woodwinds, brass, strings, and percussion). Some musicologists now add extra families to include electronic instruments and musical instruments of other parts of the world.

fermata. [symbol omitted] A sign indicating that the performer is to hold a note or pause for longer than its usual value.

first and second endings. Signs that indicate the following procedure: at the repeat sign [omitted] at the end of the first ending [omitted], the performer repeats the section just played, then goes on to play the second ending [omitted].

folk song. A song that is usually transmitted orally over several generations, often related to the daily life of the people in a culture or community.

form. The element of music relating to the structure of musical works or pieces. See also binary form (AB form); fusion form; minuet; rondo; ternary form (ABA form); theme and variations; 12-bar blues; verse and chorus.

found sounds. (1) Rhythmic or pitched sounds that can be produced by using everyday objects, such as sticks, combs, pop bottles, shakers, or pots. (2) Environmental sounds, such as the sounds of hammering, traffic, or birds, that can be used in creating a musical composition.

fusion form. A musical genre that results from combining aspects of two or more genres; for example, rock music is a fusion of blues, gospel, and country music. See also form.

gamelan. Instrumental music from Indonesia and Malaysia that is characterized by reverberating sounds produced by gongs, chimes, and other tuned metal percussion instruments. Two main gamelan traditions are the Balinese and the Javanese.

grand staff. [symbol omitted] The combination of a staff notated in the treble clef with one notated in the bass clef. This staff is used for notating piano music and music for other keyboard instruments, and is also used to notate vocal works.

half step. The smallest interval that is commonly used in Western music (e.g., the interval E–F or C–C#).

harmony. The simultaneous sounding of two or more notes, or pitches. See also chord; texture.

head tone. A sound produced in the upper register of the singing voice. The vibrations of sung head tones are felt in the head rather than in the chest.

historical periods. For the purposes of this document, the historical periods for Western classical music are the Middle Ages (ca. 500–ca. 1450), the Renaissance (ca. 1450–1600), the Baroque period (1600–1750), the Classical period (ca. 1750–1820), the Romantic period (ca. 1820–1900), and the twentieth century and beyond (from approximately 1900 on). Classical musical traditions from other parts of the world also have written historical records (e.g., North and South Indian, Arabic, Persian, Chinese).

homophony (homophonic music). Music consisting of a single melodic line with chordal accompaniment.

improvise. Compose, play, or sing on the spur of the moment without the aid of written music, applying skills learned. Improvisation can refer either to the music produced or the activity of improvising.

interpretation. (1) Analysis or appreciation of a musical work by a viewer or listener. (2) The particular understanding of a musical work that is communicated by a performer of the work.

interval. The distance between two notes (e.g., the interval between two pitches that are one step apart, such as C–D, is called a second). See half step; major interval; minor interval; perfect intervals; skip; step; unison.

invented notation. See non-traditional notation; visual prompts; visual representation.

key signature. The pattern of sharps (#) or flats (b) placed on the staff immediately to the right of the clef to indicate which notes are to be played sharp or flat throughout a piece of music. (Sharps or flats indicated in the key signature can be temporarily cancelled by a natural sign [omitted].) The key signature also identifies the key and scale associated with the music. See the diagram of key signatures at the end of the glossary.

leap. Any interval that is larger than a skip, or third (e.g., the interval of a fourth, such as C–F). See interval; skip; step; unison.

ledger lines. Extra, short lines that are added above or below the regular five-line staff to extend the staff in order to notate pitches that fall above or below the staff.

legato. Smooth, flowing performance of a phrase.

major and minor keys. A major key is based on the notes of the major scale (e.g., C major: C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C), while a minor key is based on the notes of the minor scale (e.g., A minor [harmonic]: A–B–C–D–E–F–G#–A). See also major scale; minor scales.

major interval. The distance between two notes within the major scale, measured from the first note of a major scale; that is, the major second, major third, major sixth, and major seventh (e.g., the interval F–G is a major second, and C–E is a major third). See also interval; leap; major scale; minor interval; perfect intervals; skip; step; unison.

major scale. A stepwise series of eight notes composed of whole steps and half steps in the following sequence – whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half. In this pattern, a major interval occurs between the first note of the scale and each of the second, the third, the sixth, and the seventh notes of the scale. See also minor scales; scale.

manipulatives. Models, blocks, tiles, and other objects that children can use to explore musical ideas; for example, math cubes to demonstrate the length (duration) of notes: long, long, short short. [symbol omitted]

measure. See bar.

melody. A succession of sounds (pitches) and silences moving through time. Melodies can be thought of as movement in sound by repetition of a pitch, by step, and by skip, or as movement by a series of intervals (unison, step, skip, leap).

melody map/melodic contour. A graphic representation that illustrates the movement (rise and fall) of a melodic line. Also called pitch contour. (symbol omitted)

metre. An aspect of the element called duration. The grouping of beats in music using time signatures. Metres are typically simple (e.g., 2/4, 3/4, 4/4), compound (e.g., 6/8, 6/4, 9/8), and irregular (e.g., 5/4). Duple metres have two main beats in a bar (e.g., 2/4, 6/8, 6/4). Triple metres have three main beats in a bar (e.g., 3/4, 9/8). See also oral count; time signature.

minor interval. (1) The distance between two notes within the minor scale, measured from the first note of a minor scale; that is, the minor third, minor sixth, and minor seventh (e.g., a minor sixth is A–F). (2) Any interval that is one half step (or semitone) smaller than a major interval (e.g., a major second is C–D, but the minor second is C–Db). See interval; leap; major interval; minor scales; perfect intervals; skip; step; unison.

minor scales. (1) In the natural minor, there is a stepwise series of eight notes composed of whole steps and half steps in the following sequence – whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half, whole. In this pattern, a minor interval occurs between the first note of the scale and each of the third, the sixth, and the seventh notes of the scale. (2) In the harmonic minor, the seventh note is raised. (3) In the melodic minor, the sixth and seventh notes are raised going up the scale, and are lowered going down (lowered to the same pitches as those in the natural minor). Common to all three minor scales, ascending and descending, is the minor interval between the first note and the third. See also major scale; scale.

minuet. A musical form in 3/4 time. It is based on ABA form, but there are many repeats with modifications (usually at the end of a repeated section) and variations of themes used. See also form.

monophony (monophonic music). Music consisting of a single melodic line with no accompaniment. It can be performed by one person (a solo) or by several in unison (e.g., a unison chorus).

movement. A relatively independent segment of a larger work that is found in such works as sonatas, symphonies, and concertos.

musical literacy. The ability to understand and use the variety of ways in which meaning is communicated through music, including use of the elements, aural skills (in listening and performing), reading and writing skills (use of notation, symbols, terminology), and interpretative performance skills.

musicianship. The knowledge, skills, and artistic sensitivity necessary for interpreting music through performance and conveying understanding of feelings and ideas in the music.

non-pitched percussion instruments. Percussion instruments that sound only one pitch (e.g., snare drum, cow bell, cymbals, tambourines, wood blocks). Also can be called unpitched or untuned percussion instruments.

non-traditional notation. A way of writing music that is not standard notation, such as rhythmic or stick notation, graphic notation, a melody map, depiction of melodic contour, notation using icons, or a visual representation. Sometimes referred to as devised or invented notation. See also melody map/melodic contour; oral prompts; solfège; visual prompts; visual representation.

notation. A way of indicating pitch and rhythm in written form; for example, standard notation, tablature, and percussion notation, as well as written forms of oral syllables, such as the syllables used in the Indian tabla tradition and the Griot tradition of Africa. See also non-traditional notation; oral prompts; solfège.

notation software. A computer application used to compose, arrange, and publish musical compositions. Most notation software is able to receive information from, and send information to, a MIDI-capable keyboard or synthesizer.

note. A musical sound or the symbol used to write it down.

notes and rests. The following are the standard symbols for common notes and rests. The values given here are samples in simple time (2/4, 3/4, and/or 4/4).

–whole note. [omitted] A note that is held for four beats.

–whole rest. [omitted] Indication of a period of silence lasting four beats.

–half note. [omitted] A note that is held for two beats.

–half rest. [omitted] Indication of a period of silence lasting two beats.

–quarter note. [omitted] A note that is held for one beat.

–quarter rest. [omitted] Indication of a period of silence lasting one beat.

–eighth note. [omitted] A note that is held for one-half of a beat. Beams can connect sequential eighth notes: [omitted]

–eighth rest. [omitted] Indication of a period of silence lasting one-half of a beat.

–sixteenth note. [omitted] A note that is held for one-quarter of a beat.

–sixteenth rest. [omitted] Indication of a period of silence lasting one-quarter of a beat.

–multi-measure rest. [omitted] Indication of the number of measures of silence, which is used to conserve space. This convention requires the performer to count carefully.

See also notation; oral prompts.

numbers for notation (scales). In scales, the names of notes are usually used (e.g., C, D, E, F, G, A, and B), but the notes are sometimes assigned numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) or syllables (do, re, mi, fa, so, la, and ti) for purposes of instruction. For example, it is helpful to use numbers to refer to notes when having students play a scale together on band instruments, because, in several instances, the same sound/pitch is referred to by a different name for different instruments (e.g., a Bb on an oboe is the same pitch as a C on a clarinet). See also chord; chromatic scale; major scale; minor scales; pentatonic scale; scale; solfège.

one-line staff. A “staff” of one line on which the up-and-down nature of pitch progression can be indicated in relationship to a reference point (the line). It can be used to teach young children to read music. The number of lines can be increased to two, three, and finally five. See also notation. [omitted]

oral count. Use of words to indicate beats and divisions of beats; for example, in time, “one and two and three and” to indicate quarter and eighth notes. Also called counting aloud. See the chart on page 185 showing a way of counting aloud for various metres. See also metre; time signature.

oral prompts. Syllables derived from the Kod·ly method of teaching music. See the chart on page 186 for oral prompts and their equivalents in standard and rhythmic (stick) notation.

ostinato. A continuous repeated rhythmic or melodic pattern (e.g., bordun). An example of a simple rhythmic ostinato might be “ta, ta, ti-ti, ta”. A melodic ostinato might include a word from a song that is repeated using the melodic pattern of “so–so–la–la–so–so–mi”. See also oral prompts; rhythmic pattern; solfège.

partner song. A song that results when two different songs are sung together that have melodies that fit together well when they are performed simultaneously (e.g., “Fish and Chips and Vinegar” sung with “Rufus Rustus Johnson Brown”). It is a form of polyphony.

pentatonic scale. A musical scale of five pitches or notes (e.g., C–D–E–G–A, or do–re–mi–so–la). The pentatonic scale plays a significant role in music education, particularly in Orff-based methodologies that place a heavy emphasis on developing creativity through improvisation. Orff instruments (e.g., xylophones) use wooden bars that the teacher can remove, leaving only those bars that correspond to the pentatonic scale. Because of the nature of the pentatonic scale, it was found that it was impossible for a child to make any real harmonic mistakes when using it. See also scale.

percussion instrument. An instrument that one has to hit, scrape, or rattle in order to make a sound. Percussion instruments are typically classified as pitched (e.g., xylophone) and non-pitched (e.g., maracas).

perfect intervals. The perfect 4th (e.g., the interval C–F or F–Bb), perfect 5th (e.g., the interval C–G or F–C), octave (e.g., the interval from C to the next C, ) and unison. In Western music, perfect intervals have been considered to be the most harmonious.

perform. In elementary school, share work in progress to get feedback from peers and the teacher (e.g., sing a song), or share a finished product with another individual or a group of people in either an informal or a formal context (e.g., play an instrumental piece for a classroom audience).

phrase. (1) A group of sounds that has a beginning, a middle, and an end. (2) A musical sentence that is both rhythmic and melodic (often four to eight measures long).

pick-up note(s). One or more unstressed notes that lead in to the downbeat, or strong beat. Also called an anacrusis.

pitch. The element of music relating to the highness or lowness of a tone.

pitched percussion instruments. Percussion instruments that produce more than one pitch (e.g., xylophone, metalophones, piano, orchestral bells).

pitch matching. Singing or playing, in tune, exactly the same pitch as another person, after hearing it sung or played.

polyphony (polyphonic music). Music consisting of two or more melodic lines that are performed simultaneously. Also called counterpoint. See also partner song.

program music. Music that depicts a story, scene, or emotion.

question and answer. See call and response.

recorder. A woodwind instrument consisting of a wooden or plastic tube, at the top of which is a whistle-like mouthpiece. The recorder has a softer tone than the flute, and is held vertically, not horizontally. [image omitted]

repeat. [omitted] A symbol used to enclose a passage that is to be played more than once. If there is no left repeat sign, and the performer encounters a right repeat sign, he or she goes back to the beginning of the piece and plays it again. See also first and second endings.

rest. See notes and rests.

rhythm. An aspect of the element called duration. The pattern of long and short sounds or silences. Patterns can be created by both musical sounds and lyrics or words. Rhythm differs from beat; for example, the rhythm at the beginning of a song might be “ta, ti-ti, tika-tika, ta”, whereas the beat is the underlying steady pulse of “ta, ta, ta, ta”. See also beat.

rhythmic (or stick) notation. See oral prompts.

rhythmic pattern. A short, repeated pattern using two or more note values (e.g., quarter note and eighth note). A sample of such a pattern is “ta, ti-ti, ta, ta”.

rhythm syllables. See oral prompts.

roman numerals. See chord.

rondo. A form of music in which the main theme alternates with contrasting themes. It often consists of five sections, of which the first, third, and fifth are the same or almost the same (ABACA or ABABA). See also form.

round. A piece for three or more voices or instruments in which each sings or plays the same melodic material but starts one after the other at a set point (e.g., “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”, “Frère Jacques”). It is a kind of canon.

scale. A series of notes that go up or down stepwise. Names of notes are usually used (e.g., C, D, E, F, G, A, and B), but the notes are sometimes assigned numbers or syllables for purposes of instruction. Chords based on the notes of the scale are referred to with roman numerals. See also chord; chromatic scale; major scale; minor scales; numbers for notation (scales); pentatonic scale; solfège.

section. A part of a larger composition that is longer than a phrase (e.g., an introduction, a verse, a chorus, a coda). Musical forms, such as binary and ternary, are built from smaller musical units called sections.

sforzando (sfz). A sudden and very forceful emphasis, often on a whole chord.

sight reading. Singing or playing notated music that one has not seen before.

skip. Any interval that is larger than a step, or second (e.g., the interval of a third, such as C–E, which is the distance between notes either a line or a space apart on the staff). See also interval; leap.

slur. A curved line connecting notes on a score to indicate that they are to be played or sung smoothly (legato, or without separation). For example, for a violin, a slur encompasses more than one note in a single bow stroke; brass and woodwind players should tongue only the first note of a slur group; in guitar music, slurs are commonly known as “hammer-ons” and “pull-offs”.

solfège. A technique for teaching sight singing and ear training in which each note is sung to a special syllable, called a solfège syllable (or sol-fa syllable). The syllables do, re, mi, fa, so, la, and ti represent the pitches of the scale. Various kinds of syllables are used in oral traditions around the world for learning music or for reciting (e.g., Indian, Balinese, Chinese, Korean traditions). In some cases, music is notated using oral syllables (e.g., Indian drum notation). See the drawings of the hand signs on page 186 that indicate the solfège syllables. See also visual prompts.

soundscape. A piece of music that, through sound, depicts a picture or an event or creates a mood or an atmosphere. It can, for example, contain a structured or shaped sequence of musical and found sounds.

staccato. [omitted] Short and detached, indicated by a dot above or below the note head.

staff. The five lines and four spaces on which the symbols of standard notation of music are written.

standard notation. The system of written symbols conventionally used to represent the sounds of a composition. This includes the five-line staff, notes, key signatures, time signatures, and indications of tempo, dynamics, and articulation. See also notation; solfège.

step. The interval between a note that is on a line and a note on the adjacent space, or vice versa (e.g., the interval C–D or E–F#). Also called the interval of a second, a whole step, or a tone. There are two half steps (semitones) in a step.

stick (or rhythmic) notation. See oral prompts.

stringed instrument. An instrument that has strings and that is played with a bow or plucked (e.g., violin, viola, violoncello, double bass, guitar, lute).

style. Characteristic use of the elements of music by musicians of particular traditions. Often refers to music of a specific historical period (e.g., Baroque style). Knowledge of aspects of the style of a particular time or tradition is essential for proper interpretation and performance of works in that style.

syllables. See oral prompts; solfège.

symbols. Conventional marks, signs, or characters indicating how to perform musical notes.

syncopation. The displacement of beats or accents so that emphasis is placed on weak beats rather than on strong beats.

tablature. A form of notation used for guitar and other plucked instruments, such as the lute. In the example below, notation is given for a solid A minor chord that is followed by some individual notes. The lines represent the strings (not a staff) and the numbers represent the frets (not fingering). See also notation. [diagram omitted]

technology. Electronic instruments and interfaces, as well as compositional hardware and software, used for composing music and altering and recording sound.

tempo. An aspect of the element called duration. The speed of a piece. Some common tempo indications are: allegro (quickly and in a lively way), moderato (at a moderate speed), andante (somewhat slowly, at a walking pace), largo (slowly), adagio (slowly and gracefully), and vivace (briskly, quickly, brightly).

ternary form (ABA form). A musical form that consists of three sections – a first section, a contrasting section, and a third section that is a repetition of the first. See also form.

texture. The relationship between the “horizontal” aspect of music (i.e., a single line such as a melody) and the “vertical” (i.e., some type of accompaniment such as harmony). For example, texture that is mainly vertical is homophonic (i.e., it consists of a melody with chordal accompaniment), and texture that is mainly horizontal is polyphonic (i.e., it consists of two or more melodies sung or played together). Texture may also be created by a group of percussion instruments playing music that is not primarily melodic, such as the Balinese gamelan.

theme and variations. A form of music in which a melody or section of music constitutes the basis (the theme) for a series of variations (A, A1, A2, A3...). The variations often result from changes in the key, metre, rhythm, harmony, speed, and/or mood of the theme. See also form.

tie. [omitted] symbol that links two adjacent notes of the same pitch, indicating that the first note is to be held for the total time value of the two notes. A tie can also extend over two or more measures.

timbre. The element of music relating to the unique quality of sounds that allows us to distinguish between them (e.g., the characteristic sound of a trumpet versus a clarinet, or a male versus a female voice). Also called tone colour.

time signature. A numerical indication showing the number of beats in a bar and the value of the note that gets one beat. The following are some common examples:

– 2/4 time. Indication that there are two beats to a bar and the quarter note gets one beat. Also called simple duple.

– 3/4 time. Indication that there are three beats to a bar and the quarter note gets one beat. Also called simple triple.

– 4/4 time. Also represented by [C clef omitted]. Indication that there are four beats to a bar and the quarter note gets one beat. Also called simple quadruple or common time.

– 5/4 time. Indication that there are five beats to a bar and the quarter note gets one beat. Also called irregular compound.

– 6/4 time. Indication that there are six beats to a bar and the quarter note gets one beat. Also called compound duple, since there are really two main beats to a bar, each divided into three.

– 6/8 time. Indication that there are six beats to a bar and the eighth note gets one beat. Also called compound duple, since there are really two main beats to a bar, each divided into three.

– 9/8 time. Indication that there are nine beats to a bar and the eighth note gets one beat. Also called compound triple, since there are really three main beats to a bar, each divided into three.

See also compound metre; metre; oral count; time signature.

treble clef. [omitted] The clef used for higher-pitched instruments or voices. Also called the G clef.

triad. See chord.

triple metre. See compound metre; metre; oral count; time signature.

triplet. A grouping of three notes that takes the same amount of time that two notes of the same value would normally take in a specific piece. A small numeral “3” is placed above the triplet. Heard in succession, triplets produce a gently swinging motion.

tone colour. The quality of a particular musical sound. Also referred to as timbre. Words that are sometimes used to describe the tone colour or timbre of an instrument or the tone colour(s) of a musical work might be rich, bright, mellow, or piercing.

12-bar blues. One of the most popular forms in the blues and in other popular music. The 12-bar blues has a distinctive structure both musically and in its lyrics. The typical 12-bar blues chord progression is a version of the I-IV-V-I chord progression (e.g., G-C-D7-G or A-D-E7-A). This chord progression forms the basis of thousands of songs, not only blues songs such as “Shake, Rattle, and Roll” and “Hound Dog”, but also jazz classics such as “Night Train” and pop and rock songs, such as the Clash’s “Should I Stay or Should I Go?”. Lyrics are typically in three lines, and the first two lines are almost the same with slight differences in phrasing and interjections. See also form.

two-line staff. See one-line staff.

unison. (1) The sound produced when two or more instruments or voices play or sing the same pitch. (2) The interval that occurs when two melodic parts (voices or instruments) join to produce the same sound.

verse and chorus. A musical form in which a verse part and a chorus part alternate. The chorus is usually repeated relatively unchanged, whereas the verses are not usually exactly alike. Sometimes there is an introduction, or the chorus may be repeated without an intervening verse. See also form.

visual prompts. Pre-reading representations, such as hearts, to represent the beat, or sticks, to represent note values (see illustration below). Visual prompts facilitate the learning of notation at early stages. Other forms of visual prompts are solfège hand signs; visual placement of solfège hand signs higher and lower in space or placement of solfège letters (e.g., S, S, M, S) on the blackboard to indicate melodic movement up and down; placement of solfège letters or simple circles on a staff; or indication of pitches and rhythm by using solfège letters with rhythmic (stick) notation (with or without a staff). See also melody map/melodic contour; non-traditional notation; oral prompts; solfège; visual representation. {symbol omitted]

visual representation. Use of symbols visually to reflect pitches and/or rhythms heard. For example, the size of the visual symbols used can provide an indication of the volume or duration of the sounds (e.g., a large object could indicate a loud or long sound). Also called graphic response. See also melody map/melodic contour; non-traditional notation; visual prompts.

whole step. See step.

wind instrument. An instrument in which the sound is produced by a column of air (e.g., flute, clarinet, oboe, trumpet, trombone, tuba).

woodwind instrument. An instrument, usually made of wood, that one has to blow into in order to make a sound (e.g., clarinet, oboe, English horn, flute, recorder, bassoon). Despite the name, some woodwind instruments are made of metal – for example, flutes, saxophones, and some clarinets.

Illustrations of Some Musical Concepts