August 22, 2025

August 20, 2025

Box 42 (2-Documentation of Executions), Folder 14  https://archives.albany.edu/description/catalog/apap301aspace_3b084b1b48d4a591daac5e9e0383030e, contains summary of slave executions in Virginia. Need to use Espy's references to find compensation amounts.

August 18, 2025

Early Americans meant for "cruel and unusual" to apply to methods--primarily barring the use of torture. Not that this mattered much I suppose (e.g. solitary confinement, psychological torture, etc.). And, as many tings, legitimacy is found in the history of slavery. And after emancipation, as explained by Du Bois, the courts were used to reenslave and actual crime commission was inconsequential.

In re Kemmler (1888)--electrocution is unusal but not cruel but who cares. Finally, Furman v. Georgia which was almost immediately countered. Gregg v. Georgia coined "unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain." 

This line is especially poignant "Prisoners' crimes no longer explain their treatment: rather, society is inventing the criminal, creating a new class of the condemned" (p. 37). While certainly referring to the events following Georgia, this has arguably always been the case but I like the sentence. See "The story of cruel & unusual" by Colin Dayan (gifted to me by my mentor, Professor Richard Engstrom). See very end of this page.

Work I would like to add to my already bloated reading list:

Unah, Isaac, Ryan Williams (hello, Ryan!) and Stephanie S. Zaino (2023) “Echoes of the Feminine

Mystique: Women Judges and Intergenerational Change in The U.S. Courts of Appeals,”

The Journal of Law & Politics, 38 (1): 43-100.

https://nmcdn.io/e186d21f8c7946a19

August 17, 2025

I know it's about time I filled in the blank so to speak in the excel spreadsheet. Still, I'm steadily working along until I hear any requests for a cleaner (or in a different format) version. As a reminder, archivists have finished coding a number of states using the Espy papers. They can be found on their project site: https://archives.albany.edu/espyprojectpage/ The last I checked, they had at least 5 states completely finished though I'm unsure as to the status of the project given that they have lost funding. 

I cannot believe I did not see this podcast. I have yet to listen to it: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/how-a-traveling-salesman-in-the-1970s-became/id1436861757?i=1000459316330&l=zh-Hans-CN 

Espy 2.O :) But, even the podcast misses the opportunity to discuss the gender component for instance starting with that a 14 year-old boy was the youngest ever executed. But this is illuminating...all except for answering the question about how Espy came to be involved with the university. However, the question about what drove Espy?! I imagine the same that drives all of us "academics"--a passion for a subject/an idea. 

Again, however, cannot believe I missed this. Outstanding. Brian Keough's comments perfectly sum up a lot of what I'm trying to do. An excerpt: Brian Keough:               

I mean there's some of the data set has variables in it like occupation, race, which are problematic. And what do you say? How do you define executions is problematic. Military executions, Native American before Europeans came here, French territory, Spanish territory, English territory. So it's really, to say that there's a definitive database of all executions, I think, is a really noble goal. But I don't think it's always going to be in transition. And the other issue that we deal with with the death penalty archive is that people are working in the last 15 or 20 years. They don't use paper. So saving born digital items is, we have to get in there sooner, cause formats change. Imagine if you opened a Microsoft word for file from 1998, right? [...] So we try to work with political activists, political organizations to make sure we have methods. So they're preserving these, what we call born digital records that are never printed out. You could take paper and put it in a box for 50 years and open the box and most likely it'll still be there. But if you take floppy drives or CDs and put them in the box, you're going to have issues. [...] But also trying to work with people, as Jim [Acker] mentioned, the executions that have happened in the last two decades or so. And how can we get funding and resources to continue to document those executions." (full transcript found here: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/how-a-traveling-salesman-in-the-1970s-became/id1436861757?i=1000459316330) 

A little disheartening was Keough's comment about being able to verify 3-4 executions in an hour! I can, maybe, complete one! But, he is, literally, the state's archivist (see https://www.archives.nysed.gov/about/about-us-from-the-state-archivist) 

August 12, 2025

The progression of data verification had me reprioritizing the order in which I verify and add variables. So, am starting with the so-called "missing" women from the Espy File given that the Espy Papers demonstrate that he had their records all along. And, correspondence reviewed at the archives demonstrates that documentation was shared freely (i.e., Streib) with whomever requested the records. 

July 31, 2025

Given that multiple persons often received compensation, it looks as if I will need multiple variables for compensation.

July 29, 2025

I feel comfortable with clearing the names listed in the Streib collection Box 1, Folders 114-121, off my plate given that they are all from Espy's collection and contain some notes as to the verisimilitude of a couple of sources---and I'm working on a new page based on Espy's source material in case anyone wants to track down additional information. While I realize entries are complete, the dataset's most pressing properties require priority. 

July 26, 2025

As I was adding some of the documentation to WEB, I came across a copy of Espy's notecard in the Victor Streib papers and thought I'd add it to the "firsts" in the preliminary findings. But, after reading the card and the correspondence contained within the folder (Mary Andrews in 1834 was the only non-slave woman executed in MO), I felt that, without more information, I really did not want to post that. For one, the card leaves a lot of open questions that I need to reinvestigate elsewhere (why the aliases?) The text of the (Espy) card reads as follows: 

Alias Mary Treenberg, hanged Lexington, Lafayette Co., Missouri, on April 30, 1834, for the murder of her infant child, Sarah.Information provided by Mrs. C. W. Cleverdon, Box 446, Lexington, Missouri, 64067-0446 (or Tromberg); Judge: John F. Ryland Sheriff: James Fletcher Prosecuting Attorney: Amos Rees Defense Attorneys: Alexander W. Doniphan and Henderson Young 

In any event, made the mistake of wanting to code every single case again which did set me back in terms of documenting sources. In any event, in that same letter, the writer recommended the book, A Grave for Bobby, and I read probably one of the most depressing reviews ever after searching for it on Amazon (see last sentence). I don't understand how it couldn't be interesting but, if it's truly the only book out there, I'm posting it for Bonny's entry in WEB.

 From Publishers Weekly

The 1953 kidnap-murder of six-year-old Bobby Greenlease in St. Louis, Mo., was one of the most publicized crimes of the decade. The victim's father, a wholesale auto distributor, paid a ransom of $600,000 in small bills to alleged kidnappers Carl Hall and Bonny Heady, who were quickly caught, tried and executed--but only half the ransom money was recovered. Hall, who had embarked on a drunken odyssey around the city after the crime, had no recollection of the missing cash, which Deakin, a St. Louis Dispatch reporter, attempts to trace in this flat, occasionally tedious volume. He concludes that the loot was seized by a corrupt cop and a low-level Mafioso and found its way into the hands of the Chicago mob. At a remove of four decades, however, few readers are likely to care. Photos not seen by PW. Author tour.

Copyright 1989 Reed Business Information, Inc.

July 22, 2025

I've added a couple of "firsts and lasts in the preliminary findings" but am largely waiting until I return to update because I've uncovered so much interesting material. 

Thinking about having an "Albany page" given what has been accomplished in such a short amount of time (and the need to come back). So.

Debrief (again, mostly just from transcription) I will certainly need to return. Progress appeared  slower this time, although in many respects, particularly regarding the women's executions, it was surprisingly more productive. Once I completed the Prof Radelet files, where I encountered a remarkable correspondence. I was encouraged by the types of friends Espy had and the extent of their investment in his project. There was a substantial amount of correspondence I wished to review, as it provided insight into the various individuals involved and the scholarship being exchanged. Some findings, while occasionally frustrating due to my desire to verify everything immediately, were not always in order, and files were somewhat disorganized. Despite this, the work remained very productive, especially concerning the correspondence with Prof Radelet and some remaining capital punishment cases.

The Streib documents proved unexpectedly valuable because, although Streib primarily used Espy’s note cards—copying and pasting them—he also preserved much of the correspondence Espy must have sent him when contacting librarians, archivists, or knowledgeable individuals. It appears he shared this correspondence with Streib, whose folders were easier to navigate since each contained Espy’s note cards, relevant correspondence, and additional communications with previously unknown individuals working on related projects about women. Some folders even included books I had not encountered before, such as the work on Celia the slave.

This was particularly interesting because, upon reviewing the court documents, I noticed a reference to a case titled something akin to Kentucky versus Celia, the slave. This was poignant, and though I have not yet had time to read the book, the title clearly reflected the court case, which I found quite moving. Through this, I was able to discover new resources.

I am also considering whether it would be wise to record not only the warrants and sources, as Espy did so thoroughly, but also to go beyond what Baker, Streib, and others have done. This would involve detailing who was compensated and for what, as some cases—particularly those where the accused had killed their owners—showed varying compensation, such as a sheriff receiving payment. This is an area I intend to investigate further. I am contemplating including dollar amounts for compensation, as these figures are listed, and in cases with multiple accomplices, the amounts varied. I am hopeful that historians can provide clarity on this matter, which I plan to explore tomorrow. Tomorrow will be my final day here for this visit, though not my last overall, as much remains to be examined. I aim to complete at least the cases marked in red, as Espy had that information.

One advantage of the Streib files is their excellent organization, allowing me to easily locate additional information since the files are arranged by name, reducing the need for cross-referencing. For example, Streib received several letters from SP indicating discrepancies in his data, such as lists of women in boxes one and two, possibly ranging from one to fifteen cases, including those from Kentucky and Mississippi. Espy had sent Streib summary lists of executions for each file, and Streib or the organizer would circle the relevant names, resulting in multiple copies but greater continuity.

To make the most of my time tomorrow and complete scanning and gathering the necessary information to finalize this data set, I will continue using the Streib collection. Once I finish the document containing actual images of the index cards—not just copies like Espy’s—I will upload them to the website. I already possess copies of the index cards and anticipate completing the red-marked cases tomorrow. For those who have been following the online Excel spreadsheet, I apologize for not explaining the additional executions; the notes will remain as they are for now, as I still require them. This account was dictated into a recorder and subsequently transcribed, thanks to the marvels of science and technology. I am exhausted!

July 21, 2025

I'm left with the same confusion as before as to 1) June/Jane Champion's identity and 2) the ire I attract when I use of or the other moniker. 

Reflections and Deep Gratitude: July 21, 2025 Debriefing

First and foremost, I want to express my deepest respect for librarians and archivists. Before this experience, I had no idea how much I took their work for granted.

I was fortunate that Melissa McMullin asked me in advance which files I’d like to have pulled. What she provided was exactly what I had requested—just a fraction of the full Espy collection. In my ignorance, I thought I might ask for more once I arrived. But after a full day—standing for six to seven hours, scanning documents, and trying to make efficient use of my time—I realized just how much work she had already saved me. I didn’t want to ask her to do more. I’m not exaggerating when I say that I spent the day chasing leads, trying to piece together a trail from documents and correspondence. Despite all my preparation, it became clear that you simply have to read the letters as you scan them. That’s how you begin to recognize patterns in how Espy organized his work and what to look for going forward.

With that, I want to thank my colleagues and friends who regularly do this kind of archival research. I will never again question why someone might need an entire summer to work in a library. I now understand how naïve it was to think I could accomplish everything I set out to do in just three days.

That said, I believe I will be able to verify the remaining women listed in the Espy papers. His correspondence with fellow historians, detailed note studies, and the meticulous references he kept are unmatched. I was particularly impressed by how courteous he remained, even to those few who challenged his work. His experience with the Capital Punishment Research Group in Tuscaloosa appears to have taken a significant toll on his health and spirit.

Still, he had many friends and correspondents who stood by him, including Michael Radelet, who is now deeply engaged with the Death Penalty Information Center. Their letters were heartening—full of kindness and mutual respect. But as expected, some of the correspondence was difficult to read, especially the parts that revealed the emotional toll this work exacted on a man who had devoted his life to it.

What struck me most was how much Espy's thinking about statistics and data collection mirrored that of his peers—many of whom I suspect would have considered him a peer, even though he was not a professor. He seemed acutely aware of that distinction, but also, over time, came to understand his own worth. He knew the data as well—if not better—than anyone else, and he clearly approached his work as a collaborative effort.

I was inspired by how openly people shared their research with him and vice versa. Much of this was done through handwritten letters, although Espy typically typed his correspondence, which I greatly appreciated. His handwriting was beautiful, but the typed letters made scanning and note-taking more manageable. I took extensive notes for my manuscript, documenting standout moments—including one letter I believe was from either Michael Radelet or Hugo Bedau. In it, they mention how a lead from a seemingly obscure pulp magazine—far from Espy’s usual sources—turned out to be instrumental in their research. Incidentally, I’ve come across similar sources in other collections.

Much has been said about the eclectic nature of Espy’s archives. But what I found was a thoroughly organized and comprehensive body of research. His ledgers and SPSS printouts are beyond reproduction, but I’ve copied as much as I could for my own records. Like him, I spent hours scanning documents using my cell phone and Adobe Acrobat—thank goodness for technology. Tomorrow, I plan to request use of an audio recorder to take better notes while continuing to scan and annotate files on my Kindle. Only pencils are allowed—no pens.

Tomorrow’s task is to finish verifying the remaining executions of women. I don’t expect major difficulties. Many of the relevant note cards have already been scanned by the librarians; it’s now just a matter of cross-checking and confirming some details. In instances where no note card exists, I’ll look elsewhere in the collection for documentation—either from Espy or one of his collaborators.

It’s encouraging to see how willingly death penalty researchers shared information with one another. That, I believe, is how good research moves forward—through generosity, collaboration, and mutual respect.

I’ve had many doubts over the past couple of years—due to health issues, personal challenges, and tackling a project I thought was beyond my expertise. But I’m trying to learn from Espy, to trust my instincts and lean more on others. And while I do miss the time afforded by sabbatical, I now see the value of working through challenges with the support of a research community. I also understand why Espy returned to Headland, Alabama—to continue the work he cared about, independent of institutional expectations or funding strings.

Today’s revelations were not surprising, but they deepened my understanding of the emotional bond Espy had with his research—and the sense of loss he must have felt when it was threatened.

As for what I managed to scan: I have a list of all the boxes and folders I didn’t get to—it’s substantial. I won’t get through everything that was so generously pulled for me. What I did find were relentless, determined letters to organizations, libraries, and correctional facilities. He was always trying to gain access to more data. Sometimes, the answer was simple: a building had burned down and the records were gone. I also discovered his system for labeling folders—terms like “standing” or “closed” referred to whether a response had been received, a fact I only realized later.

Some correspondents were unknown to me but clearly important within the field. Hugo Bedau’s contributions were significant, and I’m looking forward to reviewing Radelet’s letters as well—they appear to have been close colleagues. I had also requested Victor Streib’s folders, and I suspect much of Streib’s work leaned heavily on Espy’s research, though I’ve yet to confirm that through the correspondence.

There were also personal photos and writings I don’t feel comfortable reproducing, even with permission. If I were to seek approval, I’d first ask the family before approaching the library.

Espy was one of the most dedicated and ethical researchers I’ve ever encountered. His meticulousness, generosity, and defense of those doing meaningful work reminded me of people I admire in my own life.

July 17, 2025

As I prepare for my trip, I'm going down strange new avenues of thought. Fulton's "Taking Life" is brilliant and I've been brushing up on my history of women and psychiatry.. e.g. https://time.com/6074783/psychiatry-history-women-mental-health/

July 12, 2025

Zenodo publication of data so I can keep track of versions. 

If there are any notecards missing (still downloading from the archives), the Streib collection might be able to provide.

July 10, 2025

https://dannmnortongenealogy.wordpress.com/2025/05/07/betsey-reed-murderer-wrongfully-accused-ghost-celebrity/ Need to check if that's true. The only woman hanged in Illinois?

Cross-reference Streib's collection with the Espy Papers Victor L. Streib Collection 

Check all slave compensation claims for records of executions. Review each of the 246 records provided by the Digital Library on American Slavery- Race and Slavery Petitions to verify cases and collect additional variables if possible. Use all resources from Part 2 

Here is the main listing

1. St. Louis County Library
   The St. Louis County Library provides a dedicated research page on slave compensation claims that explains the background of these claims and offers guidance on the types of documents and information available.
   Website: St. Louis County Library – Slave Compensation Claims

2. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)
   as part of the broader governmental record of the Civil War era. Researchers can browse records relating to slavery and compensation in their online catalog.
   Website: National Archives

3. Digital Public Library of America (DPLA)
   The DPLA aggregates digital collections from libraries, archives, and museums across the United States. It can be a useful tool for locating material on slave compensation cases from various institutions, offering an integrated search of manuscripts, government records, and academic publications related to the subject.
   Website: Digital Public Library of America 

4. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture (New York Public Library)
   Their collections offer insight into both the legal and personal dimensions of these cases.
   Website: Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture

July 9, 2025

Thanks to the work of Margaret W. Rossiter (1993), I (the irony is not ) was introduced to the life and work of the amazing Matilda Joslyn Gage.

Rossiter, M. W. (1993). The Matthew Matilda Effect in Science. Social Studies of Science, 23(2), 325-341. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631293023002004. 

July 7, 2025

Apparently, the Victor Streib collection contains photographs of Espy notecards which I'm hoping to access upon my visit to the archives. Any missing from the final count will be my first priority. As such, I have found some elaboration on a case through a circuitous way...Streib had her listed as Kate Patapsco and Baker as Kate (Fowler). I was able to track her down to this and add the place, the crime, and her county of execution as Anne Arundel . “John Fowler of Patapsco had been murdered by three of his Negroes: Dennis, Ned, and Kate, who were executed yesterday in Annapolis, May 9, 1805. “ (Baltimore American, May 13, 1805). A search led me to the Baltimore American. I have not yet verified whether or not she is on an Espy card (I suspect, yes). 

July 6, 2025

I have not included Amber McLaughlin in the dataset because, at the time of the dataset's construction, she was not identifying as a woman and I was unaware of her.  I will add her once I complete more of the dataset. (see the DPIC for more information on her execution and case  Missouri Set to Execute Amber McLaughlin on January 3 in First U.S. Execution of a Transgender Person | Death Penalty Information Center) 

July 4, 2025

Variable 0, the links to the notecards, is now available and expected to be completed by the end of the month.

July 3, 2025

Possible new additions?

• Parmelia Yarber in 1836 Baker (2016) mentions her but Frazier has doubts as to her existence.

• Mary Johnson in 1647 Taken directly from the "The Witchcraft Delusion in Colonial Connecticut" as provided by the Gutenberg Project. 

MARY JOHNSON. Windsor, 1647.

There is no documentary or other evidence to show that Mary Johnson was executed for witchcraft in Windsor in 1647. The charge rests on an entry in Governor Winthrop's Journal, "One ---- of Windsor arraigned and executed at Hartford for a witch." WINTHROP'S History of New England (Savage, 2: 374).

No importance would have attached to this statement, which bears no date and does not give the name or sex of the condemned, had not Dr. Savage in his annotations of the Journal (2: 374) asserted that it was "the first instance of the delusion in New England," and without warrant added, "Perhaps there was sense enough early in the colony to destroy the record.

In all discussions of this matter, it has been assumed or conceded (in the absence of any positive proof), by such eminent critics and scholars as Drake, Fiske, Poole, Hoadley, Stiles, and others, that Winthrop's note was based on rumor or hearsay, or that it related to the later conviction and execution of a woman of the same name, next noted, and the errors as to person, time, and place might easily have been made.

Note that the confusion might be due to the fact that another Mary Johnson was executed in 1648 (who is currently listed in WEB and is confirmed).

Despite years of research by reputable scholars including historians, social scientists, librarians, practitioners in the legal system, and other experts, no one has, to date, collated data for executed women into one, usable dataset for quantitative analysis and empirical verification. The only available dataset of women's (and men's) executions in the United States from the 1600s to the modern era is the "Espy file" (see the ICPSR website). That dataset included 364 women up until 2002.  The Death Penalty Information Center (DPIC), and their reliance on a number of sources, the total number of women executed since 1632 is estimated to be about 576. The Espy Papers and Baker's (2016) book suggest that the number is closer to 700.

June 24, 2025

I am excited to read the book by Seth Koch (shown below) because he links the crime of burglary with rape and demonstrates the importance of black women in forcing the switch from public to private executions.  Absolutely a game, Brenda Andrew case,-changer in terms of recognizing the influence of sex stereotypes in capital punishment cases. Link to summary here Am determined to follow the story (latest update) but simply bolsters need for data collection.

June 23, 2025

I am beginning work on including a variable for religion. The early colonists consisted of Antinomians, Familists, Baptists, Quakers, and Catholics, for example, who were in part, persecuted for their religion. For unnamed women in the archives, for personal reference, I am "numbering" them in the excel spreadsheet if I sent inquiries to local archives.

Ann Jones' Women who kill is an absolutely a must-read. See also her website: HOME | Annjones for just general inspiration.

June 22, 2025

Mary Parson's execution still needs to be verified. So far, unclear even from Hall's text which is on my reading list (above). It has received numerous accolades. And, not entirely sure if, in the book, I should note the amount of misinformation on the internet because it's staggering and might detract. Texas executions, alone, have been a challenge just for simple facts like misidentifying the first execution, the first Hispanic woman, etc. For instance, as per the ironically titled "Myth of Texas Executions Debunked..." by W.T. Block writing for the Beaumont Enterprise in 1978 (September 13), Jane Elkins was the first to be executed...not Lucy Dougherty. He was writing of how Chipita Rodriguez (who was forgotten in the media around the time of Melissa Lucio) was not the first. In any event, sometimes news articles are all we have to work with. Hence, the need for cross-referencing. But, if that's all other sources are using...how much credence can we give the observations of her motive, her mental illness? 

June 21, 2025 The Quaker Martyr, Mary Dyer, hanged in 1660. The book can be found in its entirety here and it details how the Quakers were persecuted for their beliefs. So, Mary Dyer, the "Quaker Martyr" was actually executed for simply being a Quaker. She was a follower of Anne Hutchinson and was visiting friends condemned to die. I have her changed her occupation from housewife (though, certainly) to missionary as it seems that was her primary occupation. It was only because of her son and the governor that her first execution received a stay. The book, by Horatio Rogers (former Supreme Court justice in Rhode Island) is fascinating. And there are quite a lot of mistakes in her entry....both by the Espy File and Baker 2016...a lot of that being attributable to the fact that she could be considered a martyr for her faith first and foremost. The child she was accused of murdering due to its deformities was in 1637...the eventual hanging in 1660 seemed to have zero to do with that. Moreover, her family begged her to simply return but she died for her religion. Therefore, is much more famous and impactful than the Espy file, or even Baker's book, would make her appear. Moreover, it's concerning that I had to change virtually every entry including the place of execution. In any event, I wanted to note, for myself, how many women were not "technically" executed but de facto...like, for example, Anne Hutchinson who Mary followed. The website of early Quaker history is also interesting https://www.quakersintheworld.org/quakers-in-action/when.html

June 12, 2025

It is difficult to understand why number of victims were not taken into account--and that I, too, did not anticipate this as problematic. While that information is contained in WEB notes, the variable will not be released until I have completed that column. 

June 9, 2025

Parmelia Yarber's execution in 1836 in Missouri is unverified. Baker (2016) mentions that Frazier finds little to no evidence of her execution. Requires verification. I have added her to the spreadsheet (unverified executions). The number of women represented on the "documentation of the executed" is now "25." I'm realizing that priority #1 should really be to locate all of Espy's index cards relating to women which is a more time-consuming endeavor than originally thought.

June 8, 2025

I do find it interesting that Texas's "first Hispanic woman on death row" may be as "factually innocent" as another woman who was also declared as the first Hispanic woman (Chipita Rodriguez in 1863) to be executed in the state of Texas. From my correspondence with Melissa Lucio, I gathered she, like undoubtedly Chipita did (see the detail I provided), found motherhood to be a defining aspect of her identity. Unfortunately, Chipita's distinguishing characteristic in Texas might be that she was the only woman to be "legally" hanged (but research is ongoing). Melissa is still waiting...almost 20 years on death row. See the April 9, 2025 posting by the Innocence Project https://innocenceproject.org/news/melissa-lucio-9-facts-innocent-woman-facing-execution/. But, the first Hispanic woman to face the death penalty in Texas she most certainly was not.

One of Espy's frustrations with the Espy file was the refusal to include possible innocence as a variable. Given that the other variables suffered serious issues in their operational definition and verification, I do not agree that historical and judicial "complexities" precluded adding such a variable. Especially, as it turns out, for women. In any event...

The years of domestic abuse, trauma, her treatment in the criminal justice system due to gender bias, racism, and perceptions of her as a mother, bonds Melissa to many of the other women dating back to colonial times who have faced the death penalty. I'd like to take a moment and draw attention to the Alice Project (I know I do so elsewhere but feel like it deserves mentioning again). As stated on their website, "The Alice Project is the first global research-based advocacy project fighting gender discrimination in death penalty cases." 

June 1, 2025

I'm doing my best to piece together Espy's collaborators and relationships while working on this project. I do not mean to omit anyone. But I can say that, due to my research of his papers, I came across the work of David A. Hearn's which was (is) integral to the success of this project given that his entries are accompanied by citations. See, especially: Hearn, D. A. (2007). Legal Executions in New England: A Comprehensive Reference, 1623-1960 (McFarland)

The Maryland State Archives-- Thus far, what I have found has been most helpful in identifying victim gender identity though I hope to find out more if I can track down the many cited records. As an example:

Jennye and Grace (rows 126-127) were convicted and hanged for arson. I was able to verify the victim as their male "owner," Joseph Galloway, thanks to this document and others as part of the C. Ashley and Beverly B. Ellefson Collection. I suspect further exploration of this collection to help me in the construction of a number of variables...at least pertaining to Maryland in the earlier part of American history.