sources

Internal Medicine

How Race Affects Internal Medicine

Dowin Boatright, et. al., “Racial and Ethnic Differences in Internal Medicine Residency Assessments.” JAMA Network Open 5, no. 12(2022), jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2799972.

“How Considering Race Can Sabotage Health Care,” Stanford Medicine, YouTube, May 13, 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gD0H3Yoar4.

“Internal Medicine Doctor Demographics and Statistics in the US,” Zippia, last modified April 5, 2024, www.zippia.com/internal-medicine-doctor-jobs/demographics/.

Anita Samuel, et al., “Gender and Racial Representation Trends among Internal Medicine Department Chairs from 2010-2020,” Journal of General Internal Medicine 38, no. 4 (March 2023), www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10039186/.

Neil Zhang, et al., “Race and Gender Bias in Internal Medicine Program Director Letters of Recommendation,” Journal of Graduate Medical Education 13, no. 3 (2021):
335-344.

History of Race in Medical Education

W. Michael Byrd and Linda A. Clayton. "Race, medicine, and health care in the United States: a historical survey," Journal of the National Medical Association 93, no. 3 Suppl (2001): 11S.
Yashmeen Daher, et. al., "The history of medical education: a commentary on race," Journal of Osteopathic Medicine 121, no. 2 (2021): 163-170.
Nientara Anderson, Mytien Nguyen, Kayla Marcotte, Marco Ramos, Larry D. Gruppen, and Dowin Boatright. "The long shadow: a historical perspective on racism in medical education." Academic Medicine 98, no. 8S (2023): S28-S36.

Patient's Perspective

Alina Holzworth, "Making a Doctor's Appointment Should Be Easy (It Isn't)," Pattern Health, March 4, 2019, https://pattern.health/friction-doctor/.

"Appendicitis: Signs & Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment," Cleveland Clinic, last reviewed May 9, 2023,
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8095-appendicitis.

"Dr. James G. Avery," US News, https://health.usnews.com/doctors/james-avery-6940.

"Dr. Annu A. Terkonda," US News, https://health.usnews.com/doctors/annu-terkonda-359946.

Chris Tachibana, "Text Message to Ask Patients About Health Care Experiences: Q & A on Patient-Reported Racism and Emergency Department Care," Penn LDI,
February 1, 2023, https://ldi.upenn.edu/our-work/research-updates/text-messages-to-ask-patients-about-health-care-experiences/.

Health Care Delivery

Health Care Quiz

Yasmeen Daher,, Evan T. Austin, Bryce T. Munter, Lauren Murphy, and Kendra Gray, “The History of Medical Education: A Commentary on Race,” Journal of Osteopathic
Medicine 121, no. 2 (January 1, 2021): 163–70. https://doi.org/10.1515/jom-2020-0212.
Mary G. Findling, Logan S. Casey, Stephanie A. Fryberg, Steven Hafner, Robert J. Blendon, John M. Benson, Justin M. Sayde, and Carolyn Miller, “Discrimination in the
United States: Experiences of Native Americans,” Health Services Research 54, no. S2 (October 27, 2019): 1431–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13224.
Caitlin L. McMurty, Mary G. Findling, Logan S. Casey, Robert J. Blendon, John M. Benson, Justin M. Sayde, and Carolyn Miller, “Discrimination in the United States:
Experiences of Asian Americans,” Health Services Research 54, no. S2 (October 27, 2019): 1419–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13225.
Sarah, Hamed, Bradby Hannah, Ahlberg Maina, and Thapar-Bjorkert Suruchi. "Racism in healthcare: a scoping review." BMC Public Health (Web) 22, no. 1 (2022): 1-22, https://rdcu.be/dCpYb.

Linda Sanabria, “Discriminatory Practices,” Find Law, accessed April 29, 2024, https://www.findlaw.com/employment/employment-discrimination/discriminatory-
practices.html.
Kelly Serafini, Caitlin Coyer, Joedrecka Brown Speights, Dennis Donovan, Jessica Guh, Judy Washington, and Carla Ainsworth, “Racism as Experienced by Physicians of Color in the Health Care Setting,” Family Medicine 52, no. 4 (April 3, 2020): 282–87, https://doi.org/10.22454/fammed.2020.384384.

Ruqaiijah Yearby, “Structural Racism and Health Disparities,” Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 48, no. 3 (2020): 518–26.

Current and Future Steps

Sarah Hamed, Hannah Bradby, Beth Maina Alberg, and Suruchi Thapar Bjorkert, "Racism in healthcare: a scoping review," BMC Public Health 22 (2022): 1-22.

Andrea Deyrup and Joseph L. Graves Jr., "Racial biology and medical misconceptions," New England Journal of Medicine 386, no. 6 (2022): 501-503.

Yasmeen Daher, Evan T. Austin, Bryce T. Munter, Lauren Murphy, and Kendra Gray, "The history of medical education: a commentary on race," Journal of Osteopathic Medicine 121, no. 2 (2021): 163-170.

Linda Sanabria, "Discriminatory Practices," FindLaw, last reviewed November 15, 2023,
https://www.findlaw.com/employment/employment-discrimination/discriminatory-practices.html.

Kelly Serafini, Caitlin Coyer, Joedrecka Brown Speights, Dennis Donovan, Jessica Guh, Judy Washington, and Carla Ainsworth, "Racism as experienced by physicians of color in the health care setting," Family Medicine 52, no. 4 (2020): 282-287.

BIPOC Representation

AAPI in Health Care

“AAPI Health Care Workers Fight COVID-19 & Racism,” NowThis Impact, YouTube, March 31, 2021, https://youtu.be/ylNjUD4nf78 ?si=x59cxHdib0C0VP6D.

“Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans on the Frontlines - New American Economy Research Fund,” New American Economy Research Fund, May 21, 2020, https://research.newamericaneconomy.org/report/aapi-americans-on-the-frontlines/.

Frances Lu, et al., “Increasing Asian Inclusion in Academic Medicine and Leadership,” AAMC, accessed April 6, 2024,
https://www.aamc.org/what-we-do/equity-diversity-inclusion/learning/webinar-asian-inclusion.

Randy Sihotang, “The Asian American and Pacific Islander Healthcare Worker Experience During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Institute for Health Policy and Leadership,
August 12, 2021, https://ihpl.llu.edu/blog/asian-american-and-pacific-islander-healthcare-worker-experience-during-covid-19-pandemic.

David Yang, et al., “Experiences with Racism Among Asian American Medical Students,” JAMA Network Open 6, vol. 9 (September 11, 2023), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10495868/.

Pseudo to Science

Medical School Curriculum

Amutah, Christina, Kaliya Greenidge, Adjoa Mante, Michelle Munyikwa, Sanjna L. Surya, Eve Higginbotham, David S. Jones et al. "Misrepresenting race—the role of medical schools in propagating physician bias." New England Journal of Medicine 384, no. 9 (2021): 872-878.

Jaya Aysola, Kaliya Greenidge, and Michelle Munyikwa, “How Medical Schools Perpetuate Physician Bias,” Penn LDI, https://ldi.upenn.edu/our-work/research-updates/how- medical-schools-perpetuate-physician-bias/#:~:text=A%20notable%20example%20of%20a,is%20associated%20with%20white%20people.

“Hepatitis and Asian Americans,” Office of Minority Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/hepatitis-and-asian-americans, accessed April 20, 2024.

Edwin Nieblas-Bedolla, Briana Christophers, Naomi T. Nkinsi, Paul D. Schumann, and Elizabeth Stein, "Changing how race is portrayed in medical education: recommendations from medical students," Academic Medicine 95, no. 12 (2020): 1802-1806.

Nine Owen-Simon, “Teaching Critical Race Theory in Medical School,” Columbia University, February 28, 2022, https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/news/teaching- critical-race-theory-medical-school.

Peter Sang Uk Park, Eda Algur, Sweta Narayan, William B. Song, Matthew D. Kearney, and Jaya Aysola, "Representation of Asian American populations in medical school curricula," JAMA Network Open 5, no. 9 (2022): e2233080-e2233080.

Experimentation

Jacob Berman, “Doctor of Medicine Profession (MD),” Mediline Plus Encyclopedia, National Library of Medicine, last updated February 28, 2023, www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/001936.htm#:~:text=Professional%20societies%20began%20regulating%20medical.

Elizabeth Nix, “Tuskegee Experiment: The Infamous Syphilis Study,” HISTORY, last updated June 13, 2023, www.history.com/news/the-infamous-40-year-tuskegee-study.

“Pseudosciences of the 19th Century,” CSUN University Library, California State University Northridge, November 14, 2017,
www.library.csun.edu/SCA/Peek-in-the-Stacks/pseudoscience.

Stamatakos, Michael, Constantina Sargedi, Theodora Stasinou, and Konstantinos Kontzoglou, "Vesicovaginal fistula: diagnosis and management," Indian Journal of Surgery 76 (2014): 131-136.

“U.S. Public Health Service Untreated Syphillis Study at Tuskegee Timeline,” Center for Disease Control and Prevention, last updated December 5, 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm#:~:text=Participants.

“The US Medical System Is Still Haunted by Slavery,” Vox, Youtube, December 7, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfYRzxeMdGs.

Disease

"The Untreated Syphilis Study at Tuskegee Timeline," Center for Disease Control, last reviewed December 5, 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm.

Mariola Espinosa, "The question of racial immunity to yellow fever in history and historiography," Social Science History 38, no. 3-4 (2014): 437-453.

"Racism in Epidemics: Yellow Fever in Philadelphia," LabXchange, April 11, 2024, https://www.labxchange.org/library/items/lb:LabXchange:46edb8e2:html:1.

Maritza Vasquez Reyes, "The disproportional impact of COVID-19 on African Americans," Health and Human Rights 22, no. 2 (2020): 299.

Alan R. Templeton, "Biological races in humans," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 44, no. 3 (2013): 262-271.

Course Readings

Primary Sources

Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (1910), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Medical_Education_in_the_United_States_a/B4EfAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.

Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana (1839), https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crania_Americana/sBBCAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0.

Secondary Sources

Tulika Bose, “Meet the Medical Student Challenging Racial Bias with TikTok,” Scientific American, December 22, 2022,
https://www.scientificamerican.com/video/meet-the-medical-student-challenging-racial-bias-with-tiktok/.

Susan Branson, “Phrenology and the Science of Race in Antebellum America,” Early American Studies 15, no. 1 (Winter 2017): 164-193.

“Cania Americana – the most important book in the history of scientific racism,” Cambridge University, YouTube, March 19, 2014,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mMVzPCOut1w

“COVID Comics: Decentering White Narratives in Graphic Medicine,” National Library of Medicine, March 30, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ym69kKFl2LE&t=2082s

“COVID-19 may not discriminate based on race – but U.S. health care does,” PBS NewsHouse, April 2, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5QdRwflM9I

Thomas P. Duffy, “The Flexner Report – 100 Years Later,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 64 (2011): 269-276.

Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2006).

Beth L. Hoffman et. al., “Exposure to fictional medical television and health: a systematic review,” Health Education Research 21 no. 2 (April 2017): 107-123.

Jacqueline Howard, “Only 5.7% of US doctors are Black, and experts warn the shortage harms public health,” CNN, February 21, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2023/02/21/health/black-doctors-shortage-us/index.html

Manuel E. Jiminez et. al., “Black and Latinx Community Perspectives on COVID-19 Mitigation Behaviors, Testing, and Vaccines,” JAMA Network Open 4, no. 7 (2021): 1-11.

Alondra Nelson, Body and Soul: The Black Panther Party and the Fight Against Medical Discrimination (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011).

Kayhan Parsi, “Doctors in Black and White on the Big and Small Screens,” AMA Journal of Ethics 3, no. 12 (December 2001): 446-448.

Race – The Power of an Illusion, Episode 1, "The Difference Between Us," 2003, https://www.kanopy.com/en/slu/watch/video/66397/66477.

“Racial Disparities in Healthcare are Pervasive,” Healthcare Triage, 8 April 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2mirYemCmo

David Satcher, “Does Race Interfere with the Doctor-Patient Relationship?,” JAMA 223, no. 13 (March 1973): 1498-1499.

Victoria L. Seewaldt et. al., “Residential Racial and Economic Segregation and Cancer Mortality in the US – Speaking Out on Inequality and Injustice,” JAMA Oncology 9, no. 1 (January 2023): 1-2.

Timothy M. Smith, “Race-based medicine is wrong. How should physicians oppose it?,” American Medical Association, December 14, 2020,
https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/health-equity/race-based-medicine-wrong-how-should-physicians-oppose-it.

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